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A TEXTBOOK 



ON 



SCHOOL SUBJECTS 

DRAWING 

AND 

PEDAGOGICS 

International Correspondence Schools 

SCRANTON, PA. 



PENMANSHIP 

VERTICAL PENMANSHIP 

GRAMMAR 

PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION 

DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING 

WITH QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 



SCRANTON 
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK CO. 

A-2 



Copyri.y:ht, 1002, by INTERNATIONAL Tf.xtrook Company 



Penmanship : Copyright, 1(M)1, by Intkrna TIONAL Tkxtbook Companv. Entered 

at Stationer's Hall, London. All rights reserved. 
Vertical Penmanship : Copyright, 1899, 1900,by Tup: Colmf.rv ENGINEER CoMPANV. 
(irammar : Copyright, isv)9, liKX), by TiiK COLLIERY Engineer Company. 
l^inctuation and Capitalization : Copyright, 1899, by The Colliery En{;ineer 

Company. 
Double-Entry F^ookkeeping : Copyright, 1897, 1899, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER 

Company. 



All rights reserved. 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

)UN. 9 ■ 1902 

I COPVniOHT ENTt^V 

iCt.ASS f^ XXc. No. 
COPY B. 



an 

Press of Eaton & Mains 

Xr.W YORK 



CONTENTS. 



Penmanship. . Section. Page. 

Preliminary Instructions ' 12 1 

Specimen of Handwriting 12 1 

Method of Practice ....... 12 2 

Materials 12 3 

Positions 12 4 

Holding Pen 12 7 

Movements 12 7 

Muscular Movement 12 8 

Dimensions 12 10 

Principles 12 11 

Lesson Papers, No. 1 to No. 12 . . . 12 11 

Vertical Penmanship. 

Preliminary Instructions 13 1 

Method of Practice 13 2 

Materials . 13 2 

Positions 13 4 

Movements . 13 8 

Principles 13 12 

Detailed Instructions 13 13 

vSmall Letters 13 13 

Figures 13 19 

Capital Letters 13 22 

Lesson Papers 13 29 

iii 



iv CONTEXTS. 

Grammar. Section. Pcigi 

Language and Grammar 14 1 

The Sentence U 8 

vSentential Elements 14 14 

Classes of Words 14 H* 

Functions of Sentential Elements . . lo 1 

Forms of Sentences .15 13 

Sentential Analysis 15 20 

The Parts of Speech IG 1 

The Noun 10 1 

The Adjective 17 1 

The Pronoun ...IT 18 

The Verb 18 1 

The Adverb 19 18 

The Preposition . 19 27 

The Conjunction 19 32 

The Interjection 19 38 

Punctuation and Capitalization. 

General Considerations 20 1 

Grammar in Punctuation 20 6 

Rules for Punctuation 20 8 

The Comma 20 9 

The Semicolon 20 22 

The Colon 20 24 

The Period 20 27 

The Interrogation Point . . . . . 20 2!i 

The Exclamation Point 20 31 

The Dash 2() 32 

Marks of Parenthesis 20 35 

Brackets . . . 20 3(3 

Quotation Marks 20 37 

The Apostrophe . 20 39 

Letters and Characters 20 40 

Systems of Type 20 40 

Miscellaneous Marks 20 43 

Use of Capital Letters 20 45 



CONTENTS. V 

Double-Entry Bookkeeping. Section. Page. 

Introductory . .27 1 

Mercantile Terms, Abbreviations, Signs, 

and Characters 27 3 

ExplanationsConcerning Business Trans- 
actions 27 19 

Wholesale Flour Business 27 29 

Grocery Business . 28 1 

Furniture Business 29 1 

Dry-Goods Business 30 1 

General Merchandise Business .... 31 1 

Produce and Provision Business ... 32 1 

Questions. Section. 

Grammar, Parts 1 to 6 14 to 19 

Punctuation and Capitalization 20 



Practice Sets, Doup.le-Entry Bookkeeping. Section. 

Wholesale Flour Business 27 

Grocery Business 28 

P\irniture Business 29 

Dry-Goods Business 30 

General Merchandise Business 31 

Produce and Provision Business 32 



I 

I 

I 



PRNMANSIIIP. 



riM]Ll]MlI^AHV INSIKUOTIONS, 



(JKNKirVL UKIMAUKS. 

1, Af(iuiiviuoiit <)t* tStylo. — The acciuircnicnt ot" a liaiul- 
somc, yet plain and practical, style of penmanship is the duty 
of every one. It is not necessary that all of us become })ro- 
fessional penmen, but // is //('c(SS(fn' that we all have a style 
of penmanship easily and rapidly written, and plain to read. 
It is thongiit by some that a handsome style oC penman- 
ship is a gift. This is not so; // is dii (U-quircnu nl, and any 
one who will intcUigcutly study this course with that effort 
necessary to master any other subject, will accpiirc a style 
of penmanship that will be valuable both as an accomplish- 
ment and as a business qualification. 

This course is desiiinetl to ]n*oclucc f^ractical risit/fs, and 
includes everythini^- needful for the acciuircmcnt of a i)laiu 
and rapid handwritino-. 

The preliminary exercises in Lesson 1 enable the student 
to acquire the proper movement; several styles ot capital 
letters are shown in the subse(]uent lessons; a complete set 
of business capitals is t^ivcu in Lesson T; and the lollowiuLV 
lessons treat upon notes, receipts, due bills, superscriptions, 
and siii'natures. 



"e»" 



2. Spociinoii of llaiHl writing'. — Before reading- any 
further, we desire you to write two pages of sjKximens, 

Vov iK^tioo of fiipvrivilil, ^^»'«' l^iiK*' immi'<li;«l clx fdllnwinv; I'h> tillt- i>i\,v;«*- 



2 PENMANSHIP. § 12 

each containing one set of capitals, one set of small letters, 
one set of figures, and the following short letter: 



(Your address and the current date.) 

International Correspondence Schools^ 

Seranton, Pa. 
Geiitleineii : 

Hereicith I send you the specwieiis of capitals^ 
small letters, and figures, as requested. 



(Your class letter and number.) 

Yours truly 



(Your signature.) 



One page of these specimens you keep; the other send 
immediately to us. We do not acknowledge the receipt of 
the page you send us nor give the work any percentage 
mark, but we simply file it away so that we can compare it 
with your work on Lesson 12, to see how much you have 
improved. 

METHOD OF PRACTICE. 

3. There are twelve lessons in this course, and that you 
may get the most benefit from them it is desirable that you 
take them up in their order and closely follow the directions 
given. 

Beginning with Art 23, of this section are given the copies 
for this course of lessons and the instructions for studying 
and practicing them. Lesson 1 is composed of copies 1 to 8 
inclusive. Study these copies carefully and practice them 
as directed until you are fairly well satisfied with the results; 
then mail us a specimen of your work, showing at least 
three lines of each copy. 

While waiting for the return of these specimens, you may 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 3 

work on Lesson 2, copies 9 to 19. Practice on these copies 
until you have obtained good results; then send us speci- 
mens of your work as before. While waiting for the return 
of Lesson 2, take up Lesson 3. Unless otherwise directed, 
this will be the order of work throughout the course. 
Never send us more than one lesson at a time. 



MATERIAIiS. 

4, Penliolclers. — Before beginning the study and prac- 
tice of these lessons, you must obtain suitable materials with 
which to work. For practical business writing, a common 
straight holder with a taper stem, like the one shown in the 
figures, made entirely of wood, or of wood with a cork or a 
rubber tip, is generally preferred, and is certainly the best. 
Avoid all holders with a polished metal piece at the bottom. 
The smooth, polished metal is very difficult to hold, and the 
student will acquire the habit of pinching the holder, which 
will contract the muscles and thus make the whole arm and 
hand rigid and entirely prevent the acquirement of that free 
and easy movement that is absolutely necessary for good 
writing. 

Many "professional" penmen use the "oblique" holder. 
For their class of work it has many advantages, but for busi- 
ness writing it is not to be recommended. 

5. Pens. — For practice and study it is best to use moder- 
ately fine steel pens, even if their vise is not to be continued. 
No difficulty will be experienced in changing from a fine to 
a coarse pen later on, if a coarse one is preferred. With a 
fine pen, you will make the lines more accurately and be 
able to locate your errors with more certainty. Its use will 
also cultivate that lightness of touch that is actually neces- 
sary to good writing. Gillott's No. 404 and the Spencerian 
No. 1 are very good. You will also want a small piece of 
chamois skin, cotton cloth, or some other suitable article on 
which to wipe your pen. A dirty pen will not make a fine, 
neat line. 



4 PENMANSHIP. § 12 

O. Ink. — Black ink is to be preferred to any other. 
Select a kind that flows freely and writes black. The pale 
green or blue inks that turn black arc not good for practice. 
Carter's, Stafford's, and Caw's inks are reliable. 

7. Paper. — A good quality of foolscap is the best for 
practice. Avoid that with too glossy a finish. A hard, firm 
surface will give the best results. The small extra cost of 
the best over the poor is not to be considered. For the best 
results, your materials must be of the best. Ahvays have a 
blotter under the right Jiand when zuriting, to keep the paper 
elean. Having obtained the pens, paper, penholders, ink, 
and pen wiper, you are ready for study and practice. 

Before you can profitably begin the use of these materials, 
you must learn how to take an easy and proper position at 
the table, and also how to hold the pen correctly. Your 
success in attaining a good handwriting depends very much 
on these things. You must, therefore, carefully study and 
practice the directions here given. 



POSITIONS. 

8. Positiou of tlie Body. — A correct position of the 
body and feet is quite as essential as that of the arms and 
hands. Carefully study and imitate the position shown in 
Fig. 1. This is called the "front" position. It is the posi- 
tion to be preferred, and is the one most used. In studying 
the "front" position, carefully observe the following points: 
First, that the body is nearly square with the table, quite 
near it but not touching it. Avoid putting any weight upon 
the right arm. Second, that the elbows project about two 
inches over the edge of the table. Third, that the arms 
cross the desk obliquely. Fourth, that the feet rest squarely 
on the floor, the left foot slightly in advance. This tends to 
give a finn support to the body. (The illustration does not 
show this.) Fifth, that the paper is nearly in front of the 
body, and turned slightly to the left; that is, with the long 
way of the paper in the same direction as the right forearm 



12 



PENMANSHIP. 



and hand. Sixths that the fingers of the left hand hold 
the paper in plaee. All these points having- been carefully 
observed and learned, the next thing to study is the correct 
position of the right arm and hand, the manner of holding 
the pen, and the movements for producing good v^riting. 




Fig 1. 



9. Position of the Arm. — By referring to Fig. 1, you will 
notice that the arm rests on the muscles of the forearm just 
below the elbow. This is the point from which the power of 
the arm is obtained. Do not bear any wngJit on the rigJit arm. 



PENMAXSIIIl" 



§!•: 



1(). lN)sUi<>ii of Iho Jland. — The position of tlic hand is 
one of the most important features in writing-. By turnin*^- 
to Fi<^. 1, you will notiee: /wrs/, that the hand rests, on the 
nails of the third and fourth fingers, these fingers being 




Fig. 1. 



drawn back toward the pahn of the hand. Sccojid, that the 
wrist and the side of the hand are kept clear from the desk. 
T/iird, that the hand is turned well over to the left, so that 
the back of the hand is nearly parallel with the top of the 
table. This turning of the hand brings the arm on the 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 7 

thickest and most niuscular part of the forearm, and also 
points the top of the penholder in the proper direction ; that 
is, directly over the right shoulder. Keeping the wrist and 
the side of the hand free and clear from the table, and the 
back of the hand facing the ceiling, are two of the hardest 
things you will have to acquire. You should, therefore, give 
them very close attention. 

11. Holding- the Pen.— The next thing for you to learn 
is the correct manner of holding the pen. Figs. 1 and 2 show 
the pen in the proper position, from two different views. 
The position is quite well described as follows: The holder 
is held between the first and second fingers and the thumb, 
crossing the second finger at the root of the nail on the side 
nearest the thumb, then running backwards and upwards 
under the first finger, crossing it either just in front of the 
knuckle joint or just behind it. Some prefer one way and 
some the other. .If held below the joint, the pen is less apt to 
stick into the paper and spatter ink; it will also run over the 
paper more smoothly than if held in the more upright posi- 
tion in front of the joint. The thumb is placed against the 
left side of the holder, about opposite the first joint of the 
first finger. The pen held liglitly in this manner, with the 
third and fourth fingers well drawn back and resting lightly 
on the tips of the nails, the hand well over to the left, the 
wrist and the hand clear of the table, the arm propelled with 
a light, yet strong and springy, movement from the muscles 
of the forearm, must, when combined with careful study and 
rightly directed practice, produce good results in the acquire- 
ment of a handsome and practical style of penmanship. 



MOVEMENTS. 

13. Names of Movements. — There are four methods 
of using the arm and the hand in producing writing. These 
are called whole-arm, nutscular ox forearm, fi^^S^'^'^ ^'^^ eom- 
billed movement. 



8 PENMANvSHIP. § 12 

1,*>. >N'li()le-.Vi-iii MovL'iiit'iit. — This movement is pro- 
duced by slightly raising- tlic arm from the table and allowing^ 
it to swing freely from the shoulder. This movement is the 
one you would use if writing- on a blackboard. It is much 
used by professional penmen in making off-hand capitals, 
but it is not desirable for our present use. 

14. Muscular, or rorearm, Moa emeiit. — This move- 
ment is the foundation of all good writing, and you cannot 
acquire an easy, graceful, and rapid style of wanting until 
you master this movement. Carefully study and practice 
every detail of it as given here, for without this movement 
your success as a penman will be small. 

This movement is developed by resting the arm on the 
muscles of the forearm just below the elbow (see Fig. 1). 
These muscles act as a center of power, propelling the hand, 
which slides along on the third and fourth fingers (see Fig. 1). 
The thumb and the fingers must not be used in forming the 
letters, the whole w^ork being done by the muscles of the 
forearm. 

The acquirement of this movement is the first thing to be 
given attention to in learning to write a free, easy, business- 
like style of penmanship. 

In studying and practicing for a good movement, be sure 
that the position of your body, arm, and hand is correct. Be 
sure, also, that the muscles of the arm, hand, and fingers are 
lax and free, as good writing cannot be done if the muscles 
are tense and hard. Writing must be done with a light touch 
and an elastic movement, or good results cannot be attained. 

For those who find it difficult to get that easy, swinging 
motion of the hand so necessary in acquiring muscular move- 
ment, it is a good plan to practice as follows: Drop the arm 
and hand by the side, letting it hang listlessly and lifelessly; 
in this position the muscles will become lax, the fingers will 
curl up slightl}^ and naturally assume a position, which, if 
retained w^hen the hand is raised to the table for writing, 
will be the correct position of the hand and fingers. With 
the arm resting lightly on the table, the back of the hand 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 9 

facing- the ceiling, close the hand, making a fist, and with 
the arm rolling easily on the muscles near the elbow, practice 
freely and with force the exercises of Lesson 1. When thus 
practicing these exercises, use no pen or pencil, and be sure 
that no part of the hand or wrist touches the table or paper. 
See that the arm rolls and slides freely in the sleeve btit that 
the sleeve itself does not move. 

In addition to the above, it is a good plan to practice 
retracing the copies, using a dry pen, held correctly, and 
writing at a good rate of speed. 

See that neither the wrist nor the side of the hand touches 
the paper. Keep the muscles lax and free, steadying the 
hand by allowing it to rest lightly and slide easily on the tip 
of the fourth finger, or on the nails of the third and fourth 
fingers. 

Success in writing with a purely muscular movement 
depends entirely on the command one has over the muscles 
of the forearm, and the method of practice here outlined 
will, if thoroughly persevered in and used in practicing all 
the exercises, do much to produce that complete command 
of the arm, hand, and pen so necessary to success in becom- 
ing a good writer. 

15. Finder Movement. — This movement is produced 
by the action of the first and the second fingers, in connection 
with the thumb. You must guard against this movement, 
as the tendency at first is to use this movement entirely. 
Perhaps in your writing up to this time you have used the 
finger movement quite a good deal, if not entirely. If this 
is so, you may find it difhcult to leave it off, but it must be 
done, as it is impossible to write a smooth, easy, and rapid 
style with the finger movement. 

IGc Combined Movement. — This movement is pro- 
duced by the united action of the muscles of the forearm 
and the fingers, and is the one chiefly used by skilful penmen. 
The muscles, resting on their center below the elbow, propel 
the hand, which slides easily on the nails of the third and 



10 



PENMANSHIP. 



§12 



fourth finders; the lirsl iincl second fiii'^crs and the thumb, 
acting together, assist the muscles of the arm in shaping the 
letters. Care must be taken not to use the fingers too much. 
They are used principally in forming the long upward and 
downward letters ; the small letters should be made almost 
entirely with the muscular movement. This combination 
movement of muscles and fingers is the veiy best move- 
ment for both practical business writing and for fine 
penmanship. 

Many fail to become good writers from lack of study. 
They realize that they make errors, but are not able to 
tell just where the fault is. This is because they do not 
have an accurate picture of the letter in their minds. 
To be successful in learning to write, you must be able 
to form .a mind picture of the letter you wish to make; 
you must really see a correct picture of it on the paper 
before you make a mark with the pen. When you can do 
this and can readily name the strokes necessary to pro- 
duce a letter, you will be able to see your errors and to 
correct them. The copies given in these lessons show 
the coiTcct forms of letters. Study them closely and com- 
pare your work with them ; this is the only way you can 
discover the points on which you fail. 



r)IMENSIO:N^S. 

17. The height of the small letter i is taken as the 
standard of measurement, and is called a space. The 
height and width of all the other letters are regulated by 
the height of the small letter /; the "space-lined" copies 
illustrate the height of the different parts of the capital 
letters. To get the letters the proper size for any width 
of ruling, imagine the space between the ruled lines to be 
divided into four equal parts, or spaces. Make the small 
letter / the height of one of these spaces, and make the 
other letters in the same proportion to this i as they are 
in the copies given. 



§12 PENMANSHIP. 11 

PRINCIPLES. 

18. Lines. — Before a successful study of penmanship 
can be made, you must b'ecome familiar with the principles 
by which letters are formed. There are three lines from 
which all the letters of the alphabet are formed: two curved 
lines and one straight stroke. They are named right cttrve^ 
left curve, and straigJit line. 

19. Curves. — A right curve is one that would appear 
at the right side of a straight line. A left curve is one that 
would appear at the left side of a straight line. 

20. Straight Line. — A straight line is one that does 
not change its direction throughout its entire length. Nearly 
all the down strokes in small letters are straight Imes on the 
main slant of writing. 

21. Slant. — The slant of writing must also have atten- 
tion, for without a imiform slant our writing will not have a 
good appearance. The degree of slant that is given writing 
is not of great importance, but all letters should slant alike. 
Watch your work closely in this respect. 



THE LESSON^S. 

22. The lessons in this course follow in their order. 
Each lesson consists of two pages of copies and about two 
pages of explanations and directions for practice. In pre- 
paring your work for examination, write at least three lines 
of each copy. Never send inore than one lessoji at a time. 



LESSOK 1. 

23. Copy No. 1. — Correct position, proper holding of 
the pen, and a rapid movement must be maintained while 
practicing the exercises of this copy. Be sure that the 
wrist moves in and out of the sleeve, as no benefit will be 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 13 

derived from making this exercise with a wrong movement. 
Study the instructions for all copies closely and do your best 
to follow them. Good writing depends greatly on the proper 
training of the muscles. In learning to write, movement is 
of first importance. Do not allow yourself to draw the 
letters and exercises slowly with finger movement. Aim to 
gain something with each copy. This, and all the other 
copies in the lesson, should be made rapidly and with a free 
movement. Let the hand glide slowly to the right, so that 
the exercises will not become too heavy. The weight of the 
hand should rest on the little finger. Make the exercises 
high enough to fill the space between two blue lines of your 
practice paper. 

24. Copy N'o. 3. — Practice this copy at a good rate of 
speed and use only the pure muscular movement. Make 
the exercise cover three blue lines of your practice paper. 
Rest the arm lightly on the desk, and propel the hand in 
the direction indicated by the arrows in the copy. Let the 
movement be a quick, rolling motion, and make ten down- 
ward strokes in each oval. Notice the spacing of the ovals ; 
be careful not to make them too round, and see that they 
are on the same slant as writing. Be careful not to use a 
finger movement. When you can make this exercise fairly 
well take up the next copy. 

25. Copy No. 3. — This is called the compact oval exer- 
cise and should be made in the same manner as the prece- 
ding copy. Make it rapidly and be sure that you use the cor- 
rect movement. Do not let the sleeve slip on the table, but 
make the arm roll freely in and out of it; the hand should 
glide to the right easily, thus giving an even tint to the 
written exercise. Do not bear heavily on the pen, nor allow 
the exercise to become blotted. 

20. Copy No. 4. — This exercise is like copy No. 1, 
excepting that it is larger and darker. Put force into the 
movement. Do not bear on the pen to get the shade, but 
make the exercise dark with many lines. 




il 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 15 

27. Copy !N"o. 5. — This copy is designed to develop 
control of movement, and should train the hand to make 
forms of different sizes. The large part is for freedom and 
the small part is to show control and skill. Let the exercise 
taper gradually; the hand should move in the direction 
indicated by the arrows. This is called the direct oval 
movement. Be sure that you make ovals and not rings; 
watch the slant and the spacing carefully. There should be 
about forty downward strokes to each exercise. The exer- 
cise should be made rapidly; do not lift the pen until the 
exercise is finished. Aim for improvement in all your work. 
Careless practice is sure to bring unsatisfactory results. 

28. Copy IS'o. 6. — Make five downward strokes in the 
circle, then let the hand glide to the right while making the 
next few revolutions, and repeat until six heavy circles are 
made. It will take some practice to get this exercise just 
right. Notice that it is even at the top and base and that 
the retraced circles are close together. This exercise is for 
freedom and control of movement. The second line of this 
copy should be made with the reverse oval movement, as 
indicated by the arrows. When able to make these exercises 
well, take up the next copy. 

29. Copy N'o. 7. — This should be made with the direct 
oval movement. The large ovals should be the full space 
between the blue lines. Make the ovals close together, so 
that the work will not appear to be scrawled. Make from 
seven to ten downward strokes in each oval. Notice that 
the ovals touch one another and that they taper gradually ; 
also give careful attention to the width and the slant of the 
ovals. Each exercise should contain eight or nine ovals. 
We use these ovals as a means to an end; to train the 
muscles to the correct movement for making script forms. 
The ability to make good ovals will have much to do with 
your success in making good capitals. It is very important 
that a good movement be acquired, hence we devote the 
entire first lesson to exercises designed to develop freedom 
and speed. 




a 



• 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 17 

30. Copy No. 8. — This exercise should be made in the 
same manner as the preceding one. See that all the ovals 
are of the same size. If you cannot make the ovals appear 
alike, you have not good control of your movement and 
should review all the exercises in the lesson. Make ten 
downward strokes in each oval, then swing to the next one, 
which should be close to the one finished. The upward 
strokes should be as plain as the downward strokes. If you 
have a poor pen, the upward strokes may not show plainly. 



LESSON 2, 

31. Copy No. 9. — Use a very light, quick movement 
for this copy and make twelve to fifteen downward strokes 
in each exercise. Notice that the downward strokes of the 
first two exercises are looped, while those of the third exer- 
cise are retraced. 

3^. Copy No. 10. — This and the following copies on 
this plate include all the letters that are one space in height. 
Be sure to curve the upward stroke of this exercise and 
retrace it with the downward stroke. The exercise should 
be made quite rapidly Try to keep the downward strokes 
an equal distance apart. 

33. Copy No. 11. — In making the letter a, see that it is 
very narrow at the base, also notice the slant of the last 
downward stroke. The top should be closed. Practice a 
free and easy movement; the curved ending stroke is used 
to illustrate that a free movement is used. For the letter c, 
make a small dot at the top, then make the downward stroke 
the same as the last downward stroke of letter a. In wri- 
ting the letter m, students have trouble in making the three 
parts of the letter close enough together. There should be 
a point at the bottom of the first and the second downward 
strokes, but a round turn at the bottom of the third. 

34. Copy No. 13. — See that the tops are rounded, that 
there is a point at the bottom of the first downward stroke 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 19 

and a round turn to the second. In writing the letter e^ 
notice the direction of the downward stroke; a common 
error is to curve it too much. The loop of this letter must 
be open, otherwise the letter may be taken for i or c. 
Notice the last part of the v very carefully ; see that the 
letter is narrow and that there is a round turn at the 
bottom. 

35. Copy No. 13. — Make the letter iv narrow; the last 
part should be the same as the last part of the v. Note the 
round turns at the bottom. The letter x can be made in 
three dijfferent ways, but we prefer the method given here, 
which is a combination of the first part of 7i and the last part 
of c. Lift the pen in making the letter. Be sure that the 
letter o is closed at the top. Both sides of this letter should 
be of the same curvature and the center of the letter should 
be on the main slant. 

36. Copy No. 14. — The letters s and r are difficult and 
will require careful study. Examine the copy frequently as 
you practice. Both these letters are slightly taller than 
other small letters. See that the downward stroke in the s 
is heavily curved and that it connects with the upward 
stroke. The downward stroke in the r should be nearly 
parallel with the upward stroke. The top of this letter will 
need a great deal of practice; study it carefully. In the 
letter u, the downward strokes should be on the same slant 
and should have pointed tops and rounded bottoms. 

37. Copy No. 15. — The A with horizontal dotted lines 
is for study and not for practice. We use these dotted lines 
to illustrate the height and proportion of letters. Practice 
the tracing exercise carefully; being sure to use a free 
movement and to make it as nearly' like the copy as possible. 
If you have trouble to make the vSecond downward stroke 
nearly straight, pause at the top of it; this will check the 
rolling motion and allow a fresh start. Next we have fur- 
ther practice on the a exercise and words containing that 
letter. Study movement and position as you practice. 



20 PENMANSHIP. g 12 

38. Coi)y Xo. 10. — The style of the letter A is almost 
exactly like the small letter a without the first upward 
stroke. The downward stroke may be shaded the least bit 
if desired. Do not shade so that a blotter is necessary. 
The last downward, or finishing, stroke is made with a 
slight curve to give the letter a graceful appearance. Be 
sure to give the oval part enough slant; making it too 
straight is one of the most common errors. Be careful not 
to make the oval too wide. Do not shade the last down- 
ward stroke. Practice the words separately, unless prepar- 
ing copy to be sent for criticism. Notice that the letters 
are compact and that the spacing is even. When you are 
able to write this line quite well, proceed with the next copy. 

39. . Copy Xo. 17. — After giving a few minutes to the 
practice of the tracing exercise, take up the letter d. Use 
the fingers slightly in forming the loop; the last part of the 
letter is similar to the last part of v. Make the letters /, d, 
and /' the same height. 

40. Copy Xo. 18. — In making the letter B, be sure 
that the capital stem has a full curve. The height of the 
letter is three spaces, the height of the capital stem two and 
one-half spaces. For a more detailed explanation of the 
capital stem, see F, copy 20. Make the ovals in the main 
part of this letter full and smooth. See that the small loop 
in the center of the letter points upwards; if necessary, the 
fingers may be used slightly in forming it. The shades 
should be slight and very low; the nearer the bottom of the 
letter they are, the better the letter will look. The style of r 
in the word banner is not used very much ; if yon prefer the 
other style, iTse it. 

41. Copy No. 19. — Practice the tracing exercise first, 
5 minutes' practice at a time should be sufficient for this, 
then take up the exercise and words in the order given. 
Notice that the first stroke in ^ is a left cun^e; do not 
make this letter too round, nor the hook at the top too 
large. Careful work will bring good results. 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 21 

LESSON 3. 

42. Copy No. 20. — Some prefer to make the letter C 
with a large loop, reaching' down to within a space of the 
line , others prefer to have a very short loop, not more than 
half a space long. We think a loop one and one- half spaces 
long is about the proper size. In making this letter, be sure 
not to use the fingers, for, if you do, you will make a sharp 
angle in it and thus spoil the beautiful curves of the letter. 
Be careful to give the left side of this letter a full curve. 
Many fail in this, and make it straight. Make full turns at 
the top and bottom of the letter and you will be sure to 
have good results. Do not make the shade too heavy, little 
or no shade is best. Write the words with an even move- 
ment; all the small letters should be of the same height. 

43. Copy No. 31. — Study the proportions of the letter 
as shown by the first figure, then practice the tracing exer- 
cise for 5 minutes. Now practice the d exercise and the 
words in their order, giving especial attention to the d. 
Learn to criticize your own work; choose the poorest parts 
and practice them separately. 

44. Copy No. 22. — Notice that two parts of the letter 
rest on the base line, and that the ending stroke is at half 
the height of the letter. Practice the capital by itself and 
when able to make it well take up the words. When you 
practice, see that the little finger glides on the paper; do 
not let it rest in one place. 

45. Copy No. 23. — The tracing exercise should be 
practiced for about 5 minutes. It maj^- seem difhcult at 
first, but it is surprising how rapidly the exercise can be 
made by good writers. Do not make the small center loop 
too low, and see that it points downwards. Practice the 
remainder of the copy in the order given. Be careful not 
to curve the downward stroke of e too much. 

46. Copy No. 24. — Use only the muscular movement. 
The secret of making a good letter E is in making the 




il 



'U PENMANSHIP. § 12 

cun^es full and in having- the small loop in the middle of 
the letter point across the letter at a right angle to the 
main slant. Be careful to put this loop in its proper place 
between the first and second parts of the letter. See that 
all the curves are full and broad. The bottom part of this 
letter is larger in every way than the upper part, and may 
be shaded a very little if desired. 

■47. Coi)y Xo. t*.5. — Study the form of the /^carefully, 
then devote a few minutes to practicing the tracing exercise. 
In writing the/ be sure not to make it too large. Let the 
upward line of the lower loop join the main part of letter at 
the base line. Because of its length thesis one of the most 
difficult of ^11 the letters; watch the slant closely. 

48. Copy Xo. 26.— The difficult part of the letter /'is 
the capital stem, which should have a little more slant than 
the do^^^lward strokes of the other letters. Beginning at the 
top of the stem, two and one -half spaces above the line, 
descend about half way with a left curve, verge into a right 
cur\-e, and continue to the line; carry it one space to the 
left, then upward one-half space, ending with a dot. Be 
sure to keep the shade, if any, below one-half the height of 
the stem. See that the dot is carried well to the left. The 
cross is made by a straight horizontal line in the middle of 
the letter, ending in a short do^-nward stroke. One-half of 
the cross-line should be to the left of the letter and one-half 
to the right. In making the cap to this letter, make a loop 
about one space to the left of the capital stem and then carn,- 
a double curved line across the top of the stem, one space 
above it. Many spoil the cap by making it straight. Do 
not do this, but make it with full cun-es. The small / 
should be crossed at one and one-half spaces with a short 
horizontal stroke. 

49. Coi)y Xo. 27. — Begin at the base line and use a 
right curve for the beginning stroke of the tracing exercise. 
Notice that the lower part is two spaces in height. In 
making the ^, be careful not to make the loop too long; it 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 25 

should not be more than two spaces below the line. The a 
part should be closed at the top. You will notice that three 
styles of the g are given ; the second style should be used 
only when the g ends a word. 

50. Copy No. 38. — To be successful with the letter G, 
you must make a full curve in the initial stroke; let the 
downward stroke of the upper loop come to the one-space 
line, then end with a full swing two spaces high. Finish the 
letter by lifting the pen while it is in motion. 

51. Copy No. 29. — After studying the form of the 
letter //, practice the tracing exercise with free movement. 
Do not make the exercise too wide. The letter h is a com- 
bination of the / loop and the last three strokes of the letter n. 
Let the upward and downward strokes cross at the height of 
the letter i, or one space from the base line ; a common error 
is to cross them too low. The downward stroke of the n 
part should have the same slant as the main downward stroke. 



I.ESSON 4. 

52. Copy No. .30.— The first part of the letter H is 
made by beginning at the top and forming an oval one space 
long on the main slant; descend with a full right curve to 
the base line, raising the pen while it is in motion. The 
lower part of the descending stroke may be slightly shaded. 
The last part of the letter is made by beginning at the 
extreme height and bringing the stroke downward with a 
full left curve. Finish the letter with two short, full, 
curved strokes. The ending stroke may be joined to the 
first small letter of a word. Practice the words very care- 
fully. It is estimated that in general writing twenty small 
letters are used for every capital. 

53. Copy No. .31. — Notice the relative proportion of the 
three parts of the tracing exercise. We do not believe in 
excessive practice on these tracing exercises, but we do 
believe a few minutes' practice to be helpful. The i is 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 27 

easily made; the first stroke is curved to insure making the 
letter sharp at the top. Place the dot directly over the 
letter in the direction in which it slants. 

54. Copy No. 33. — The full height of the letter / is 
three spaces; the width of the top is one space. The width 
of the bottom loop is one and one-half spaces. The first 
upward and downward lines should cross one-fourth of a 
space above the base line. Be careful to get the top on 
the main slant ; this is very important. The lower loop 
is carried well to the left, and is made full and without a 
break. Many writers finish the letter with a dot, one-half 
space above the base line at the same distance to the left 
as the extreme edge of the full curve. 

55. Copy No.- 33. — Make this tracing exercise different 
from that of the /. The lower part of this exercise extends 
below the base line and is very small. The arrow indicates 
the direction of motion. Make the top of they similar to 
the / and dot it in like manner ; the lower part should be 
short, much like the lower part of g. 

56. Copy No. 34.— The difiicult part of the letter/ is 
in making the long downward stroke. It is made nearly 
straight, having a very slight curve to the right. Some 
prefer to make the lower part two spaces below the base 
line, and some only one and one-half. Some, also, prefer to 
make the top loop twice as wide as the bottom one, while 
others prefer to have them alike. We think that, if the top 
loop is a little larger than the bottom one, it gives a style to 
the letter not obtained by either of the above methods. 
See that all shade is below the base line and that both of the 
curved up strokes cross the main downward stroke at nearly 
the same place, one-fourth of a space above the base line, 
leaving a small three-cornered space in front of the main 
downward stroke. 

57. Coi>y No. 35. — Give close attention to the propor- 
tions of the different parts of the K. Always compare your 




tl 



§ 12 ' PENMANSHIP. 29 

work on the exercises with the copies and make frequent 
reviews. Use some finger movement in making the loop of 
the k; the last part of this letter should not be higher than 
one space. Devote considerable time to the words kind 
and ki7tk. 

5S. Copy Kg. 36. — In making the first part of the 
letter K, see that the first stroke is a full right curve two 
and one-half spaces high; then descend with a straight line 
for about one space ; then verge into a full right curve, con- 
tinuing to the base line, then to the left and upward, finish- 
ing with a dot on the first stroke of the letter one -half a 
space above the base line. The second part of this letter is 
formed as follows: Begin at the full height of the letter, 
three spaces, and two spaces to the right of . the first part ; 
descend on nearly the connective slant, with first a left and 
then a right curve, to the center of the letter; then, forming 
a small loop pointing upwards and encircling the first down- 
ward stroke of the letter, descend with a graceful curve. 
Be sure to use both a left and a right curve in the first stroke 
of the second part of the letter. Many fail to do this and 
use a right curve all the way down to the small loop, thus 
completely spoiling the letter. Be sure that the little loop 
points across the first part of the letter at right angles, or 
you will not be able to get the last downward stroke in its 
proper place. The ending stroke extends one space below 
the base line. 

59. Cojjy No. 37. — After a careful study of the form, 
practice the tracing exercise. The tendency at first will 
probably be to make the lower loop too large. You must 
guard against this by slackening the movement in making 
the downward stroke. For the /, use a light, quick move- 
ment. The fingers may be used slightly in curving the 
upward stroke ; the downward stroke should be quite straight. 

60. Copy No. 38.— The first part of the L is a full right 
curve that begins at two spaces in height. The downward 
stroke is a compound curve, much like the capital stem. 




I 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 31 

The lower part is a small loop, which should poiut directly 
to the left. Be sure that the letter has the proper slant. 

61. Copy No. 39. — This tracing exercise should be 
made without lifting the pen. The most common fault is to 
make the exercise too wide. End the last stroke one space 
below base line. In making the m^ the downward strokes 
may be retraced a little. The top parts of the letter should 
be round, yet the letter should not occupy too much space ; 
make it compact. 

I.ESSON 5. 

63. Copy No. 40. — The main points to observe in the 
letter M are that the slight shade is below half of the height 
of the letter, that the top of the second downward stroke is 
lower than the top of the first, and that the top of the third 
downward stroke is lower than the top of the second ; also, 
that the downward strokes in these lines are on the same 
slant as the first downward stroke in the letter. They 
should be parallel, and a little less than one space apart. 
Practice the capitals separately from the words, except when 
preparing work for criticism". 

63. Copy No. 41. — The iV should be quite narrow. Make 
the first part three spaces and the second part two spaces in 
height ; retrace the downward stroke of the n but very little, 
and end the letter with a full right curve. Give close atten- 
tion to spacing and movement in writing the words. 

64. Copy No. 43. — The letter J\^is the same as the first 
and the third part of the M, and the same things may be 
said regarding the special points to observe. The down- 
ward strokes in this letter should be abotit three-fourths of 
a space apart and parallel. The shade should be low, the 
turns should be short but full. Many fail on this letter by 
making it too wide. Do not do this. 

65. Copy No. 43. — This tracing exercise is very easily 
made. Begin at the top and make ten downward strokes in 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 33 

each oval. Do not make circles. In writing- the o, be sure 
to close the letter at the top. Do not let the connecting 
line curve much; it should be nearly straight. A line drawn 
lengthwise through the middle of the letter should be on 
the main slant. Practice the words very carefully. 

66. Copy No. 44. — The two most common errors in 
making- the letter are in making- the first downward stroke 
too straight and the turn at the base too short. Be sure to 
give the same degree of curvature to both sides of the letter. 
Make the loop at the top full and without a break; a sharp 
point in it destroys the appearance of the letter. The end- 
ing stroke should point to the right at one and one-half 
spaces in height. 

6*7. Copy No. 45. — In making the first part of the tra- 
cing exercise, give attention to the proper slant. Make the 
last part nearly round and one and one-half spaces in height. 
For the /, curve the first stroke so that the top of the letter 
will be sharp,^the downward stroke should be straight and 
on the main slant. Make the last part of this letter like the 
last part of n. The first stroke extends two spaces above 
the line and the downward stroke is one and one -half spaces 
below the line. Observe this proportion closely. Lift the 
pen between the parts of this letter. The words should be 
written carefully, yet at a good rate of speed. 

68. Coi)y No. 46. — Two styles of the P are given in this 
copy. We prefer the style that has the straight downward 
stroke. The other style is, however, used a great deal and 
we therefore give instructions for making it. Begin at a 
height of one space and make the first stroke a full right 
curve to a height of two and one-half spaces, then bring the 
downward stroke under, in the same manner as the first part 
of K, but continue the stroke over the top of the first part 
and down to the one-space line. For the second style of 
letter, begin in same manner but bring- the downward stroke 
straight, on the main slant, to the base line. The last 
part is made by placing the pen on this stroke at one and 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 35 

one-half spaces in height and forming the loop, the end of 
the loop crossing the line at the place where the loop 
was begun. 

69. Copy No. 47. — The Q is very much like a large 
figure 2. Give a few minutes' careful practice to the tracing 
exercise, then take up the small letter. This letter is com- 
posed of the first part of a and the last part of/. Make the 
lower part one and one-half spaces below the base line. 
Give especial attention to the q when writing the words. 

70. Copy No. 48.— The first part of the letter Q is the 
same as the first part of H. Add the horizontal loop one 
space in length, cross the main downward stroke, touch the 
base line, and finish with a right curve one space in length. 
Study the points in the first stroke of the H. Be sure that 
the long diameter of the small loop is parallel with the 
ruling, and that the finishing line is an easy curve. 

71. Copy No. 49. — Make this tracing exercise in the 
same manner as the first style of P\\\ copy 46, with the addi- 
tion of the last stroke of the K. Notice carefully the simi- 
larity of the R and P. The r is rather a difficult letter to 
make. The first stroke is a full curve one and one-fourth 
spaces in height. Make the short stroke at the top with care 
and finish with the last part of the i. This letter requires 
much practice. 

LESSON 6. 

73. Copy No. 50. — Two styles of the letter R are given 
in this copy. If you are able to make the letters P and K 
correctly, you should have no trouble with the R. Notice 
the instructions given for the P and form the R in like 
manner, adding the finishing stroke, which should extend 
one space below the base line, the same as the finishing 
stroke of K. 

73. Copy No. 51. — Begin at the base line and use a 
right curve for the first part of the tracing exercise. Make 



\ \ 




§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 37 

the oval at the base one and one -half spaces in height. 
Make ten downward strokes in each exercise. Do not make 
the oval irregular. The s, like r, should be one and one^ 
fourth spaces in height. To be successful with this letter, 
you must curve the first stroke a great deal, retrace it 
slightly at the top, and curve the lower part of the down- 
ward stroke very much. Notice that the finishing dot rests 
on the upward line of the letter a little above the base line. 

74. Copy No. 53.— The usual difficulty with the letter 6" 
is to get enough curve to the upward stroke, also to get 
enough curve to the downward stroke. Make these curves 
very full and you will not have very much trouble with 
this letter. See that the upward and downward strokes 
cross at one and one-fourth spaces above the base line. We 
give two styles of finishing lines. Both styles are used a 
great deal and we advise you to learn to make both styles well. 

75. Copy ^"0. 53. — Study the form and proportion of 
the T as you practice the tracing exercise. Do not place the 
top, or cap, either too close or too far from the first part. 
Notice the double curve in both parts of the exercise. The 
full height of the letter t is two spaces. Up to one space 
high it is the letter i; above this it is a slightly shaded 
straight stroke, one space in length. Be sure to place the 
cross-stroke of the letter one and one-half spaces above the 
ruling, and make it only one space long. See that it crosses 
the letter, instead of placing it two or three spaces to the 
right, as is often done. Practice the words with care, 
giving especial attention to the t. 

76. Copy No. 54. — The two parts of the letter 7" are 
the capital stem and the cap. Make the capital stem and the 
cap just as was described for the letter K The horizontal 
part of the cap .should be nearly parallel with the line of 
writing. Note the position of the shade and the ending of 
the stem. If you carefully follow all that has been said 
about the capital stem in F, you will not have much trouble 
with the letter T. 



38 PENMANSHIP. § 12 

7 7. C <>l>.v No. .55. — Note the main points of the letter 
L\ Retrace the upward stroke in the last part of the exer- 
cise; the ending stroke extends below the base line. Make 
the upward strokes of 2t full curves, and the downward 
strokes straight to the line. Have them parallel, one space 
high, and nearly one space apart. The tops of this letter 
should be pointed and the turns at the bottom should be 
round. 

78. Copy No. .50. — The first part of the letters ^' and 
V are ver\' much alike. The most difficult part of both of 
these letters is the second dowuward stroke. In the C\ 
form the loop the same as in the JTj g'iving the oval a full 
curve; descend one space with the curve and then, chang- 
ing to the straight line, continue nearly to the base line, 
make a short turn, and ascend with a right cur\-e two spaces 
and one space to the right of the first downward stroke; 
then descend with a slightly curved line to one space below 
the base line. See that the main downward stroke is 
straight for two full spaces. Confine any shade to this 
straight line ; it is quite a common error to shade too high. 

79. Copy No. 57. — Begin the tracing exercise the same 
as the I', make the letter narrow and end the upward stroke 
at two spaces in height. Be sure to make the top of the 
first part of the letter z' a short turn and not an angle. Do 
not make the space between the first downward stroke and 
the second upward stroke too wide; remember, it is only 
one-half space. The bottom of the letter should be a round 
turn, not a sharp point. 

80. Copy No. 58.— Form the first half of the letter 
f to the base line exactly like the C ; then turn short 
and ascend with nearly a straight line one and one-fourth 
spaces; then, with a full left cur\-e to the right, finish at 
two spaces above the base line. The width of this letter at 
one-half its height is one-half a space, and at the height of 
the last stroke it is two spaces. The most common error is 
to make the turn at the bottom too small and to ascend 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 39 

with a gradually increasing width from the base to the top 
of the finishing line. 

81. Copy ^o, 59. — The tracing exercise of the W is 
even more difficult than that of the V. The most common 
fault is to make the exercise too wide. See that the down- 
ward strokes are parallel, and that the top of the third part 
is only one-half a space from the last downward stroke. See 
that the points at the top of the letter are sharp; do not 
make the middle one a loop, as is often done. 



82. Copy N'o. 60.— The IV is a difficult letter to make 
correctly. Compare your work with the copy. Note the 
distance between different parts of the letter. The third 
downward stroke should be nearly straight. Make the let- 
ter narrower at the base than at the top. Give as much 
practice to the words as to the capitals. 

83. Copy ]S"o. 61. — -Make the first part of the tracing 
exercise like the first part of W; the last part should be 
made like a large figure 6. The x is not difficult to make. 
Use the first part of the 7i and the last part of the c. The 
letter may be made in three different ways, but from expe- 
rience we find this style to be the best. This letter is sel- 
dom used but it pays to make it well. 

84. Copy :N"o. 63.— The first part of the letter X is 
exactly the same as the IV. The downward stroke in the 
second part is a left curve, beginning at the full height of 
the letter and touching the main stroke at one and one- 
third spaces from its top, continuing with a left curve to 
the base line, touching it one space to the right of the pre- 
ceding line, turning and finishing with a small oval. Use 
a free movement in making each part. 

85. Copy Ko. 63.— The letter F, to the bottom of the 
third downward stroke, is the letter U; then add the loop 





c:> 



9 

i 

















4.» PEXMAXSHIP. $ 1-2 

as in the small y. See that both downward strokes are on 
the same slant. The last upward stroke should cross the 
long downward stroke at the base line. Watch the shade 
and the turn at the bottom of the second downward stroke. 
For the further points to observe in this letter, see the capi- 
tal^' and the small y. 

86. Copy Xo. 04.— The first part of the letter Z is the 
same as the first part of W, excepting that, on account of 
the small loop, the shade is made a little higher. Form the 
loop, then turn to the right and descend, with a slight right 
curve, two spaces ; then ascend with a full left curve, cross- 
ing the downward stroke at the base line, and finishing 
three-fourths of a space above the line. 

87, Copy Xo. 05. — In this copy you have enough 
material for several days' practice. Xot only should the 
student note each letter carefully, but he should study the 
relation of one capital to another. The size, slant, spacing, 
quality of line, all enter into the making of a model set of 
capitals. Do not allow yourself to make the letters slowly 
in your endeavor to obtain the correct form, ^£ake them 
with a quick movement, cross out the poorest letters, then 
trv again. 

Business cajntals should not be shaded. Of course, when 
using a fine, elastic pen some slight shade will sometimes be 
made by those who bear heavily on the pen, fine-pointed 
steel pens can be had that are stiff enough to hold up the 
heaviest hand. To those who have difficulty in this respect 
we suggest that they try Crawford's 9C»1 pen- 
It is quite probable that your faults are the result of a 
lack of control of your movement rather than a lack of 
knowledge of the correct forms. Some of the fomis given 
here vary from those already studied by the student: the 
other styles may be used if preferred. 

We have now reached a point where the pupil will be 
allowed to use his taste and judgment in the selecticn of 
stvles of letters, vet we want him to adhere to the stvles 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 45 

g-iven in the course. Learn to severely criticize your 
writing. In these days, when proficiency in any line of 
work counts for so much, no one can afford not to write a 
good hand. 

LESSON" 8. 

88. Copy No. 66 and No. 67. — These copies are given 
for special practice in what is called body writing. In the 
preceding copy we had practice on the large and free forms 
of capitals, now we have the smaller and more careful work 
of sentence writing. We know it is difficult work and not 
as fascinating as the former copy, but it is necessary work 
and it is best to do it and do it well. 

The style of writing selected for these copies has a little 
more space between the letters than is given to n and it. This 
style has been selected because it has a tendency to induce the 
student to strike out more freely and will help him to break 
away from the common habit of using the fingers too much. 

Because of lack of interest in this work one is liable to 
become careless and the writing will approach scribbling. 
The copy is so long that we do not hold ourselves down to 
it for the careful study that a shorter copy would receive. 
Here is where the student may make a mistake. Study 
each part well, then when the copy is finished, study the 
general appearance of the work. Michel Angelo, on being 
questioned as to why he gave so much attention to small 
things, said, "Trifles make perfection, and perfection is no 
trifle." 

The style of 6^ used as the first letter of this lesson, can be 
made well only b}^ a good writer. The same may be said of 
the C in City, in the third line of the lesson. Use the old 
styles unless you can make these well. They are given for 
variety and to familiarize the student with forms that are 
sometimes used. 

89. Copy No. 68. — In this copy we have a business 
form for practice. There are eleven, different capitals in 
the copy and each should be made with care, yet easily and 



I 




i-a "^ 



1 



48 PENMANSHIP. § U 

freely. Remember we want business writing, writing that 
is adapted to the dispateli of business. This eopy is a 
promissory note. Those who have studied tlie matter 
know that eredit is a very important faetor in carrying on 
the commerce of the world, and that it adds greatly to the 
convenience and dispatch of business. It is true that the 
extreme use of credit has caused panic and disaster, but the 
custom of credit is growing with each year. Credit does 
not always consist of accounts, but may take the form of 
a written promise to pay, which is called a proviissory note. 

A promissory note is a written promise to pay a certain 
sum of money at a specified time, or on demand, to a per- 
son therein named, or to his order or assigns, or to the 
bearer. This form of credit covers the entire field of busi- 
ness activity. A note may pass from one man to another 
by endorsement, and in effect be the same as a bank note. 
It differs from a bank note only in this, that it is trans- 
ferred by endorsement and matures at a stated subsequent 
time, and that the endorsers are liable to the holder in case 
the maker refuses payment. The person who signs the 
note is the maker, and the person to whom it is made pay- 
able is called the payee. The person who writes his name 
across the back of the note is an endorser. A note is 
negotiable, that is, transferable from one person to another 
by endorsement, when it reads "pay to the bearer," or 
"pay to the order of." 

Copy No. G8 is a non-negotiable note as it is payable only 
to J. A. Leming. If the note were payable to the order of 
J. A. Leming, it would then be what is called negotiable. 
In this note E. J. Foerster is the maker and J. A. Leming 
is the payee. 

LE8SOX 9. 

00. Copy Ko. C9. — This is a form of a negotiable note 
that might pass between several persons before it is due. 
This form of note is payable to the person who holds it at 
maturity, while the one not negotiable is payable only to 
the person in whose favor it is drawn. 



§ rz PENMANSHIP. 49 

Of course in actual business most papers like notes, 
checks, receipts, etc. are made out on printed blanks. It is 
well, however, to know how those papers should read so 
that if ever required to draw one up on blank paper, you 
could do it correctly and without hesitation. It is said that 
the largest check ever drawn by Jay Gould was written in 
pencil on the back of an old envelope. Such copies as these 
are, therefore, valuable not only as penmanship lessons, but 
also as samples of business forms. 

Write these notes many times. Aim for constant im- 
provement and submit your best v/ork for criticism and 
additional instructions. 

91. Copy No. TO. — At an adjustment of claims between 
parties, a due bill may be issued, which is a written 
acknowledgment of debt and may be payable in merchandise 
or money. It may be made payable on demand or at a future 
date, and by the insertion of the words ^r order it becomes 
negotiable the same as a promissory note. If a due bill is 
payable in merchandise or property, it should be explicit; the 
exact quantity should be stated and any other information 
that would give a clear understanding of the matter to an 
outside party. 

In writing this, the student should remember that he is at 
liberty to use styles of capitals that have been presented 
heretofore. The L and ii, especially, vary somewhat from 
the forms already given. Such capitals as these require a 
very free movement and unless you have such a movement 
do not attempt them except as practice exercises to develop 
movement. Keep reviewing past lessons, always working 
for a light touch and good control of the pen. Business 
writing must be done quickly and should be dashy and clean 
cut in appearance. 

The only way to learn to write well is through earnest 
and well directed practice. There is no royal road. Wc 
want the student's best work from this copy. All the 
copies in these lessons were photoengraved from pen and 
ink writing. 





^^ 





\ 



^ 



§12 



PENMANSHIP. 



51 



LESSON^ 10. 

92. Copy :N'o. 71.— This business paper is called a 
receipt and is a written or printed form acknowledging the 
receipt of value. The form of a receipt may vary according 
to the kind of value received and the reason why it is given ; 
hence one m_ay be given to apply on account ; in full of all 
demands ; for rent ; to apply on a note ; for a note ; to exec- 
utor for payment of a bequest; for instruction; and for many 
other causes. A receipt should state plainly and fully for 
what the payment was made. A receipt is not certain proof 
of payment; it may be invalid because of mistake or fraud 
and is open to explanation or contradiction. 

Note the position that each part of this business form 
occupies, and study capitalization and punctuation closely. 
Do not make the capitals too large but be sure to make them 
with a quick, dashy movement so as to get smooth, clean-cut 
lines. 

As you write this copy, notice the arrangement and gen- 
eral appearance of your work. Study to locate your errors 
and then do your best to eliminate them from your work. 
A constant striving for betterment will do much to improve 
your writing. You may receive ever so much instruction, 
but the real writing must be your own work produced by 
your own efforts. Some of our finest writers have had the 
most difficulties to overcome. The spider's web may break 
twenty times and yet he keeps on and eventually succeeds. 
The policy of indomitable pluck has carried many ^Dersons to 
success, and in these days of business competition it pays to 
write well. Do not allow yourself to become careless 
because of the poor writing of some famous men, or to con- 
sider that you are like them because you write in like manner, 

93. Copy N'o. 72. — This copy is designed to give the 
student practice in writing a short business letter. Atten- 
tion should be given to the arrangement as well as to the 
penmanship. Notice also the UvSe of capitals and pmictua- 
tion marks. Too much pains cannot be taken to have one's 
correspondence well written and each idea clearly stated. 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 53 

The large insurance companies employ good penmen to 
fill in their policies. When they have any particularly for- 
mal correspondence it is quite customary to have the wri- 
ting done by these penmen, as the letters are then more 
elegant and formal than if typewritten. 

Poorly written letters are quite common in business. 
Many business men whose deahngs are mostly with the- 
poorer class of people of the large cities, often receive let- 
ters that are very difficult to decipher. When a package is 
to be mailed to such a customer, the dealer sometimes cuts 
the signature and address from the letter and trusts that 
the post-office authorities will be able to find the writer. A 
nicely written letter is appreciated even in the rush of busi- 
ness. Oftentimes a well paying and responsible position is 
secured through the applicant's ability to Avrite a good 
letter. There are employers who judge of a young man's 
ability from his letter of application, in preference to a per- 
sonal interview. A great many marks of character are 
expressed in a letter — neatness, arrangement, penmanship, 
expression of thought, and attention to details, all of which 
go to make up a model business letter. It is worthy of 
mention here that some of the best clerical positions in the 
world are for work requiring the best penmanship. 

The style of capitals used varies somewhat in the differ- 
ent forms. In all other respects follow the copies closely, 
but as regards capitals always use that style of a letter that 
you can make the best. Work for movement, as that is the 
foundation of a good writing. 



I.ESSON 11. 

94. Copy ]S"o. 73. — This copy treats of envelope super- 
scriptions. In arranging a superscription, begin the per- 
son's or firm name far enough to the left to allow of its 
being written in a free style and yet leave a fair amount of 
space at the right. Do not write it too low on the envelope, 
but be sure to leave plenty of room under it for the town 
and state. Some writers prefer to put a local address under 



§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 55 

the name above the town, instead of in the lower left-hand 
corner, and we believe that the post-office department favors 
this form. If the name of the person addressed is short, the 
names of the town and state can be written so that each 
ends a little to the right of the preceding line. If this style 
is not followed, let all the lines end at about the same dis- 
tance from the right-hand end of the envelope ; never write 
a superscription in the form of an inverted pyramid. There 
is enough material here for many hours of practice. Prac- 
tice carefully and earnestly and then submit tw^o copies of 
each superscription for criticism. 

Note the styles of letters used in the copies and follow 
them unless there is a letter, say like C\ that you cannot 
make well, then substitute another style. See that each 
small letter stands out clearly and plainly; the large space 
between the letters should give the writing a very clean-cut 
effect. 

Pay close attention to your movement, there is no other 
place where an exceptionally free movement can be used to 
better advantage than in a superscription, for here there is 
plenty of room, the writing can be made a little larger than 
usual if desired, and more freedom: in style is allowable in 
this work than would be desirable in a letter or in book 
work. 

No attempt should be made to reproduce, on the work 
sent us for examination, the printed title that is at the top 
of the copy. 

95. Coi^y No. 74. — A good signature is worth a great 
deal to a young man or woman engaged in business, but 
how often do we find signatures that are illegible, giving 
the impression that the writer was either very careless or 
wished to write something that could not pos.sibly be read. 
It does not pay to write a signature that is a tangled mass 
of conglomerate lines. A signature that is neat, easily 
written, and plain is the best for all purposes. Capitals 
need not be joined to form a good signature ; in fact, some 
of the best signatures we have ever seen have contained 








,^ 







^ 






§ 12 PENMANSHIP. 57 

capitals that were not joined. When an ending stroke is in 
a position from which a following capital should be made, 
then the capitals may be joined. In writing business signa- 
tures it is not a good plan to throw any line out of its course 
in order to connect capitals; this is fully illustrated by the 
signatures in this copy. There are some extra lines in this 
copy, but all are given for a reason and are of use. There 
is some difficult writing here also, and the student may 
need to work hard to get the desired results. That "we 
gain in proportion to the time and effort expended," seems 
to be especially true in the acquirement of a good handwri- 
ting. When you are satisfied that the work you have is the 
best that you can do at the present time, send it to us for 
criticism and proceed with the next lesson. 

Send us three samples of your work on the copies, and 
kindly arrange them in the same order as here given. It 
would also be a good plan for you to send us samples of your 
own signature, using the styles of capitals you like best for 
it, and we will endeavor to offer such suggestions as will help 
you improve it. Do not write too large, and do not shade. 
Write at a good rate of speed, to get clean-cut lines, but do 
not rush ahead without seeing where your lines are going 
and how the work will look when done. You want move- 
ment and speed, but they must be under control. 



liESSOK 13. 

96. Copy No. 75. — The figure 1 should be a downward 
stroke on the main slant and one space in height. Do not 
shade or curve the stroke. The 2 is not a difficult figure if 
given proper study. It is a small Q. Make a small dot or 
loop at the top and curve the downward stroke until the 
base line is reached, then end with a compound curve, or a 
straight line. For the 3^ begin as for the 2 and curve well 
the downward strokes. Aim to keep the figure plain and 
clear. Notice the direction of the ending stroke. See that 
the downward stroke of the Jf. is higher than the first and 
somewhat curved, and that the horizontal stroke is a little 



V 


\ 


V 


i . 


V 


i^ 


V 


% 



^ 






^ c 



¥ 



5J 



H 



\ 



,^ " 



^ 



.V 









V 







N 



^ 






60 PENMANSHIP. § U 

above the base line and nearly horizontal with it. Give 
attention to slant. The J is niiieh like ligiire J in formation. 
Be sure to eonnect the horizontal straight line to the top of 
the first part of the figure; make the ending stroke as in the 
J. For the a, begin a little above one space in height and 
curve the downward stroke slightly. Do not make the lower 
part too small. Make the first part of the 7 .short, and follow 
with a straight line extending below the base line and on 
the main slant. The curved stroke of the 8 should be made 
first; give attention to the slant and direction of the second 
stroke. The P is an ^ and the last part of the 7. This 
figure extends below the base line. The is practically the 
same as the letter O. In book work this figure may be made 
perfectly round. 

For the following copies, make the a, c, and o very small. 
The downward stroke should be made firm.ly and on the 
main slant; a slight shade at the base adds strength. Do 
not make the letters too far apart. 

9T. Copy Xo. 70. — Practice easily and freely; study every 
figure closely; and grasp every opportunity for improvement. 

98. Copy Xo. 77 and Xo. 78. — Bookkeepers and others 
engaged in clerical work are often required to write a very 
small style. The style given is undoubtedly the best for all 
such work. 

99. Copy Xo. 79. — This is the last lesson in the course, 
and we have included in it this copy, not only because of the 
excellent practice it affords, but also because it will give you 
a specimen, prepared under instruction, to compare with 
that written at the beginning of the course of lessons. Note 
carefully the arrangement of the different parts of the exer- 
cise, paying particular attention to those that you are to add, 
and endeavor to follow this arrangement in your work. 

Only thoughtful, conscientious practice can produce the 
best results. Apply yourself earnestly, and you will be 
successful in making satisfactory improvement and acquiring 
a good handwriting. 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



PRELIMINARY E^^STIIUCTIO:^^S, 



ge:n^eral remarks. 

1, Acquirements. — The acquirement of a handsome, 
yet plain and practical, style of penmanship is the duty 
of every one. It is not necessary that all of us become 
professional, penmen, but // is necessary that we all have a 
style of penmanship easily and rapidly written, and plain 
to read. It is thought by some that a handsome style of 
penmanship is a gift. This is not so; it is an acquirement^ 
and any one who will intelligently follow the course of study 
given in" this Paper, with that effort necessary to master 
any other study, will acquire a style of penmanship that will 
be valuable both as an accomplishment and as a business 
qualification. 

The course of instruction given in this Paper is designed 
to produce practical results^ and includes everything needful 
for the acquirement of a plain and rapid handwriting. 

2. Specimen. — Before reading any further, we desire 
you to write two pages of specimens, each containing one set 
of capitals, one set of small letters, one set of figures, and the 
following short letter: 

§13 

For notic-o of the copNii.^lit, si-c i);i,v;(> iniiiUHliatol y fonowini-; tlu- title pav^r. 



t VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. | 13 

Tk^ Iniermatwmal Carrespomdemie SckMfls^ 
Scramicm^ Pa. 
Gcnilemtem : 

This is a fair s/ecimuit of my u^iiimg 
hi fare hegimmimg jomr camrse of ^emwutmskip Ussams bj jamr 
correspamdtmce wuthad. Yours trmlj^ 



One set ofthese specimens voa keep; the other i^ezi ir:ine- 
diatel J to usL * 

>tETHOI> C»F PP^CT^CE. 

3. Routine. — There are le- I:-s>>zs in this Paper, and 
tlsat yon may ore- :he zi:<?- bezez: fr : m them it is desiiable 
that jon take them up in their order and cdoselj follow the 
directions given, and that joa intelUg^mtly piactioe for a 
time each day, making that time as long as poGsiUe. To be 
snccessfo!, yon mnst heccMne thofoi^;lilj interested in your 
YTOfkand keep sa 

Beginning on page t9o€ this PSaper are given the copies for 
this course of lessons and the instmctions for stndyiog and 
piacticing them. Le^xm lis composed of fire copies^ Stndy 
these cc^iies caiefnIEy, and practice on them as directed until 
you axe fairly well satisfied with the results; then mail us a 
sample of your work, giving at least three lines of each cc^iy 

While waiting for the letum of these specamens, you may 
wtHk on Lesson 2. Practios oa. these (»pies until you 
good results; then send us specimais of your work as befoieu 
While waiting Ux the letum of Lesson 2, take up Lesson 
Unless directed differently, this will be the order of 
thiooghoot the Co-^rrse. Xevtr son> rs more THAai oxk 

LESSOS AT A THEZ. 

MATEKtAXS- 



may 

hai4^ 

sforeu^^ 

woik I 



4 . Penholders Before begriming the stndy and piac- 

t::e cf the:^ !e^s*?ns, you must obtain suitable materials with 
which t3 '^crk. For practical ImglnffgR urntmg^ a. cowimon 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 3 

straight holder with a taper stem, like the one shown in the 
figures, made entirely of wood, or of wood with a cork or a 
rubber tip, is generally preferred, and is certainly the best. 
Avoid all holders with a polished metal piece at the bottom. 
The smooth, polished metal is very difficult to hold, and the 
student will acquire the habit of pinching the holder, which 
will contract the muscles and thus make the whole arm and 
hand rigid, and entirely prevent the acquirement of that free 
and easy movement which is absolutely necessary for good 
writing. 

Many " professional " penmen use the ^' oblique " holder. 
For their class of work it has many advantages, but for busi- 
ness writing it is not to be recommended. 

5. Pens. — For practice and study it is best to use mod- 
erately fine steel pens, even if their use is not to be continued. 
No difficulty will be experienced in changing from a fine to a 
coarse pen later on, if one is preferred. With a fine pen 
you will make the lines more accurately and be able to locate 
your errors with more certainty. 

Its use will also cultivate that lightness of touch which is 
actually necessary to good writing. Gillott's No. 404 and the 
Spencerian No. 1 are very good. You will also want a small 
piece of chamois- skin, cotton cloth, or some other suitable 
article on which to wipe your pen. A dirty pen will not 
make a fine, neat line. 

6. Ink. — Black ink is to be preferred to any other. 
Select a kind that flows freely and writes black. The pale 
green or blue inks which turn black are not good for practice. 
Carter's, Stafford's, and Caw's inks are reliable. 

7. Paper. — A good quality of foolscap is the best for 
practice. Avoid that with a glossy finish. A hard, firm sur- 
face will give the best results. The small extra cost pf the 
best over the poor is not to be considered. For the best 
results, your materials must be of the best. Ahvays keep a 
blotter under the right hand, so as to keep the paper clean. 
Having obtained the pens, paper, penholder, ink, and pen- 
wiper, we are ready for study and practice. 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



§ 13 



Before we can profitably begin the use of these materials, 
we must learn how to take an easy and proper position at the 
table, and also how to hold the pen correctly. Your success 
in attaining- a good handwriting depends very much on these 
things. You must, therefore, carefully study and practice 
the directions here given. 



POSITIONS. 

8, Position. — A correct position of the body and feet is 
quite as essential as that of the arms and hands. Carefully 
study and imitate the position shown in Fig. 1. This is called 
the "front " position. It is the position to be preferred, and 
is the one most used. "\Ve shall, however, illustrate and 
explain the "side" position, because for lack of room on 
narrow desks the side position must occasionally be used. 
In studying the "front " position, carefully observe the fol- 
lowing points: First, that the body is nearly square with the 
table, quite near it, but not touching it. Second, that the 
position is nearly erect, the body inclining slightly to the 
left and leaning a little upon the left arm ; this is done to 
avoid putting any weight upon the right arm. Third, that 
the elbows project about two inches over the edge of the 
table. Fourth, that the arms cross the desk obliquely. 
Fifth, that the feet rest squarely on the floor, the left 
slightly in advance. This tends to g^ive a firm support to 
the body. (The illustration does not show this.) Sixth, that 
*-.he paper is nearly in front of the body, the bottom edge 
parallel with the edge of the table, or turned slightly to the 
left — that is, with the long way of the paper in the same 
direction as the right forearm and hand — provided vertical 
down strokes can be made easily with the paper in this posi- 
tion. Seventh, that the fingers of the left hand hold the 
paper in place. All these having been carefully observed 
and learned, the next thing to study is the correct position 
of the right arm and hand, the manner of holding the pen, 
and the movements for producing good writing. 



13 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



9. Position of the Arm. — By referring to Fig. 1, you 
will notice that the arm rests on the muscles of the forearm 
just below the elbow. This is the point from which the 
power of the arm is obtained. Do not bear any weight on the 
right arjfi. 




Fig. 1. 



10. Position of tlie Hand. — The position of the hand 
is one of the most important features in writing. By turn- 
ing to Fig. 1, you will notice: First, that the hand rests on 



6 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



the nails of the third and fourth fingers, these fingers 
being drawn back toward the palm of the hand. Second^ 
that there is an open space between the second and third 
fingers. Third, that the wrist and the side of the hand are 




Fig. 2. 



kept clear from the desk. FoiirtJi, that the hand is turned 
well over to the left, so that its back faces the ceiling. This 
turning of the hand-brings the arm on the thickest and most 
muscular part of the forearm, and also points the top of the 



13 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



penholder in the proper direction ; that is, directly over the 
right shoulder. Keeping the wrist and the side of the hand 
free and clear from the table, and the back of the hand 
^facing the ceiling, are two of the hardest things you will 
[have to acquire. You should, therefore, give them your 
[very closest attention. 




Fig. 3. 



11. Holding the Pen. — The next thing for you to learn 
is the correct manner of holding the pen. " Figs. 1 and 2 show 
the pen in the proper position, from two different views. The 



8 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. § 13 

position is quite well described as follows: The holder is 
held between the first and second fingers and the thumb, 
crossing the second finger at the root of the nail on the side 
nearest the thumb, then running backwards and upwards 
under the first finger, crossing it either just in front of the 
knuckle joint or just behind it. Some prefer one way and 
some the other. If held below the joint, Fig. 3, the pen is 
less apt to stick into the paper and spatter ink ; it will also 
run over the paper more smoothly than if held in the more 
upright position in front of the joint. The thumb is placed 
against the left side of the holder, about opposite the first 
joint of the first finger. The pen held lightly in this manner, 
with the third and fourth fingers well drawn back and rest- 
ing lightly on the tips of the nails, the hand well over to 
the left, the wrist and the hand clear of the table, the arm 
propelled with a light, yet strong and springy, movement 
from the muscles of the forearm, must, when combined with 
careful study and rightly directed practice, produce good 
results in the acquirement of a handsome and practical style 
of penmanship. 

12, Side Position. — This position is illustrated in Fig. 3. 
It is best adapted to narrow desks. Sit erect, with the feet 
firmly on the floor, the right side to the desk, the right arm, 
hand, and paper parallel with the front edge, and the left 
hand at the edge, to hold the paper. The arm should rest 
lightly on the muscles near the elbow. Keep the wrist 
elevated, and let the hand slide on the nails of the third and 
fourth fingers. The manner of holding the pen is the same 
as in the front position. While the front position is the one 
most generally preferred, it is well to practice in both, that 
you may be able to write well at any style of desk. 



MOVEMENTS. 
13. Their Names. — There are four methods of using 
the arm and the hand in producing writing. These are 
called Avhole-arni, muscular or forearm, finger, and 
combined movements. 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 9 

.14. Whole -Arm Movement. — This is produced by 
slightly raising the arm from the table and allowing it to 
swing freely from the shoulder. This is the movement you 
would use if writing on a blackboard. It is much used by 
professional penmen in making offhand capitals, but is not 
desirable for our present use. 

15. Muscular, or Forearm, Movement. — This is the 
foundation of all good writing, and you cannot acquire an 
easy, graceful, and rapid style of writing until you master 
this movement. Carefully study and practice every detail 
of it as here given, for without this movement your success 
as a penman will be small. 

This movement is developed by resting the arm on the mus- 
cles of the forearm just below the elbow (see Fig. 1). These 
muscles act as a center of power, propelling the hand, which 
slides along on the third and fourth fingers (see Fig. 1). The 
thumb and the fingers must not be used in forming the letters, 
the whole work being done by the muscles of the forearm. 

The acquirement of this movement is the first thing to be 
given attention in learning to write a free, easy, business- 
like style of penmanship. 

In studying and practicing for a good movement, be sure 
that the position of your body, arm, and hand is correct, for 
no good writing can be done in a cramped position. 

Be sure, also, that the muscles of the arm, hand, and 
fingers are lax and free, as no good writing can be done if 
the muscles are tense and hard. 

Writing must be done with a light touch and an elastic 
movement, or good results cannot be attained. 

For those who find it difficult to get that easy, swinging 
motion of the hand so necessary in acquiring muscular 
movement, it is a good plan to practice as follows: Drop 
the arm and hand by the side, letting it hang listlessly and 
lifelessly; in this position the muscles will become lax, the 
fingers will curl up slightly, and naturally assume a position 
which, if retained when the hand is raised to the table for 
writing, will be the correct position of the hand and fingers. 



10 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. §13 

With the arm resting lii^htly on the table, the back of the 
hand faeinii;- the ceiUng-, ch)se the hand, making- a fist, and, 
with the arm robing easily on the muscles near the elbow, 
practice freely and with force the exercises of Lesson 1. 
When thus practicing these exercises, use no pen or pencil, 
and be sure that no part of the hand or wrist touches the 
table or paper. See that the arm rolls and slides freely in 
the sleeve and that the sleeve itself does not move. 

In addition to the above, it is a good plan to practice 
retracing the copies, using a dry pen, held correctly, and 
writing at a good rate of speed. 

See that neither the wrist nor the side of the hand touches 
the paper. Keep the muscles lax and free, steadying the 
hand by allowing it to rest lightly and slide easily on the tip 
of the fourth finger, or on the nails of the third and fourth 
fingers. 

Success in writing with the pure muscular movement 
depends entirel}^ on the command one has over the muscles 
of the forearm, and the method of practice here outlined 
will, if thoroughly persevered in and used in practicing all 
the exercises, do much to produce . that complete command 
of the arm, hand, and pen so necessary to success in becom- 
ing a good writer. 

16. Finger Movement. — This movement is produced 
by the action of the first and second fingers, in connection 
with the thumb. Perhaps in your writing- up to this time 
you have used the finger movement quite a good deal, if not 
entirely. If this is so and it is thought impracticable to give 
the necessary time to thoroughly train the arm and hand to 
the use of the muscular movement, the finger-and-wrist 
movement may still be used, and with much better success 
in vertical writing than could be had with it in the slant 
style. If the finger movement is used, the position of the 
right arm, hand, and paper will be somewhat different from 
those just described. The bottom of the paper should be 
nearly or quite parallel with the front edge of the desk. 
The right forearm rests partly on its side, the back of the 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 11 

hand facing towards the right instead of upwards. With the 
hand in this position, the natural action of the fingers will 
produce vertical down strokes in the writing. In forming 
the oval and extended letters, a slight action of the wrist oi 
forearm is combined with the finger movement. The arm 
and hand held in this position will not slide along the desk 
as easily as when more muscular movement is used ; it must, 
therefore, rest very lightly on the desk, and must be slightly 
raised and moved to the right as often as it becomes difficult 
to write easily along the line. 

IT. Combined Movement. — This movement is pro- 
duced by the united action of the muscles of the forearm 
and the fingers, and it is the one chiefly used by skilful pen- 
men. The muscles, resting on their center below the elbow, 
propel the hand, which slides easily on the nails of the third 
and fourth fingers ; the first and second fingers and the 
thumb, acting together, assist the muscles of the arm 
in shaping the letters. Care must be taken not to use the 
fingers too much. Their use is principally in forming the 
long upward and downward letters ; the small letters should 
be made almost entirely with the pure muscular movement. 
This combination movement of muscles and fingers is the 
very best movement for both practical business writing and 
for fine penmanship. 

Many fail to become good writers from lack of study. 
They realize that they make errors, but are not able to tell 
just where the fault is. This is because they do not have 
an accurate picture of the letter in their minds. To be suc- 
cessful in learning to write, you must be able to form a mind 
picture of the letter you wish to make ; you must really see 
a correct picture of it on the paper before you make a mark 
with the pen. When you can do this and can readily name 
the strokes necessary to produce a letter, you will be able to 
see your errors and to correct them. The copies given with 
these lessons show the correct forms, and the Instruction 
Paper explains how they are made, and also points out the 
places where you will be most likely to fail. 



12 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. § 13 

DIMENSIONS. 

18. Measurements. — Now a few words as to measure- 
ment and space. The height of the small letter i is taken as 
the standard of measurement, and is called a space. The 
height and width of all the other letters are regulated by the 
height of the small letters. The following "space-lined" 
copies illustrate the height of all the small letters. To get 
letters the proper size for any width of ruling, imagine the 
space between the ruled lines to be divided into four equal 
parts, or spaces. Make the small letter i the height of one 
of these spaces, and make the other letters in the same 
proportion to this i as those in the space-lined copies are to 
the i there. ■ 



principi.es. 

19. JLines. — Before a successful study of penmanship 
can be made, you must become familiar with the principles 
by which letters are formed. There are three lines from 
which all the letters of the alphabet are formed : two curved 
lines and one straight stroke. They are named right curve, 
left curve, and straight line. 

30. Curves. — A right curve is one which would appear 
at the right side of a straight line. A left curve is one 
which would appear at the left side of a straight line. 

21. Straight Line. — A straight line is one that does 
not change its direction throughout its entire length. Nearly 
all the down strokes in small letters are straight lines. 

22. Slant. — The direction of the down strokes in wri- 
ting is called its slant. If the down strokes are on a forward 
slant, the writing is said to be the slant style ; if the dowm 
strokes are perpendicular, it is called the vertical style ; if 
the down strokes lean to the left, it is called backhand. The 
direction of the connecting stroke is called the connective 
slant. While vertical writing is supposed to be exactly per- 
pendicular, a reasonable amount of variation is allowable ; 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 13 

and, if a good style of writing has been acquirxsd, and it 
slants a little forward or backward, it is not advisable to 
spend much time in trying to change it to a strictly vertical 
style, but better to put all the time and attention on improv- 
ing the movement and forms of the writer's letters. 



DETAILED I^STRUCTIOIS^S. 

33, In the following pages each of the small letters, 
capitals, and figures is described in more or less detail, and 
the parts needing the most study and practice are pointed 
out. Study carefully and fix firmly in your mind all that is 
said about each letter. The combined movement may be 
used in making all the letters. When in your work you find 
yourself unable to form any letter easily and correctly, it is 
to these instructions that you must look for a remedy for 
your failing. Therefore, as you value success, do not slight 
this work. 



SMAlLIi liETTERS. 



24. The body of this letter should be a perfect oval. The 
down stroke should be one space high, straight 
and vertical. Note carefully how it joins the 



Qy oval or body of the letter. Do not fail to close 

. the letter at the top. Take pains to make this 

letter like the copy; then it will not be mis- 
taken for an o, 

25. The loop in the letter b is the same as in the /. Make 
the down stroke straight to the base line. The upward and the 
downward stroke should cross one space above the base line, 
and below this cross they should make the first 
^ two strokes of a perfect letter /. The last two 



y> lines are the same as the last two lines in the letter 

w. Compare the width of the loop and the bottom 
part of the letter. Study carefully the letter /. If 
''ou fail on the /, you will fail in the same place on the loop 



14 VERTICAL PEXMAXSHIP. § 13 

in this letter. Pay special attention to the last half of this 
letter, or you will make it too wide. 

26. Note how round this letter is; also, the slight hook- 
like finish at the top. Do not close the letter 
• too much, or it will look like o. Make a broad 



{^y turn at the bottom, and finish with a right- 

. curve up stroke. In connecting a preceding 

letter to a r, it is necessar}- to raise the pen in 
order to avoid making a loop in the top of the c. 

2T. The letter d is the letter a with the top of a / added. 
Shade only the top part of this letter, and be 
— sure to make the down stroke straight to the 



Qy line. Some make a loop in the top of this letter; 

avoid it if possible. Study carefully the special 

points under both the small a and the /, and 

apply them to this letter. 

28. The first stroke is a right cur\^e; note carefully how 
and where it joins the rest of the letter. In making this 
letter, when it follows another, the pen is raised at the end 
of the connecting stroke; the right-hand side of the loop is 

next made, the pen passing upwards around the 

top of the letter, and then down between the con- 

^j necting line and the stroke already made, form- 

ing the back and the base of the letter. If 

desired, the e can be made without raising the 
pen, as in the slanting style; but if so made, it should be 
round and full. Try both styles and make your own selec- 
tion. Be careful not to close the loop, as then the letter 
may easily be mistaken for /. 

29. The total length of the letter /"is three spaces, two 
above the line and one below. The width of 
the loop is the same as in /. The first upward 



and the downward line cross at the height of the 



letter /, and the finishing line joins the downward 
line at the base line. See that the whole length of the 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 15 

down stroke is straight and vertical. Be sure to connect 
the finishing line to the down stroke. 

30. The ^ is a letter a with the down stroke extended 

one space below the base line, finishing with an 

upward left curve, making an inverted / loop. 



Qy ' See that the upper part forms a perfect letter a, 

(I and that the down stroke is straight and vertical. 

Do not make the down stroke much more than 

one space long below the base line. If shaded anywhere, let 

it be on the dowm stroke. 

31. The letter h is a combination of the /loop and the last 

three strokes of the letter n. Make the upward line heavily 

curved, and the downward stroke perfectly straight to the 

base line. Let the up and the down stroke cross 

— ^■^ at the height of the letter i\ a common error is to 



^ly cross them too low. Be sure that the downward 

'• line in the n is vertical. The making of these 

long and straight loops is one of the hardest 
things in writing. You will do well, therefore, to give this 
work your best attention, and carefully study and practice the 
letters having these long, straight down strokes. 

33. Make the down stroke in the letter i straight to the 
line and vertical. Be careful not to retrace the 
first upward line ; this is quite a common error. 



^j Make the dot directly over the letter, and one 

. space above the top. This letter occurs very often 

in the formation of other letters. You should, 
therefore, give it your close attention. 

33. The letter/ is composed of the first two strokes of 
the letter /joined to an inverted /loop, or, again, 

\ the last two strokes of the letter g^ with a dot 

' over them. Make the dot one space above the 

— down stroke and directly over it. Be sure that 

the down stroke is but two spaces in length, one 

above and one below the base line, perfectly straight, and 

that the last up stroke is a full left curve. 



16 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. § 13 

34:. After making the first two strokes, which are the 

same as in the letter /, the difficult part of the letter k is to 

form the small horizontal loop. This is made by 

the united action of the fingers and the muscles. 



^y Do not extend the horizontal loop more than one 

space to the right. The last down line should 

be nearly parallel with the main down stroke and 
one-half space from it. Finish with the last stroke of the 
letter ;/. 

35. The first two strokes of the letter / appear in the 

letters b^ Ji, k, the top oi f, and, inverted, in the 
last part of g, j\ and y. Use the combined 
movement. ^Make the down stroke straight to 

. the line, crossing the up stroke one space high. 

Below the point of crossing, the letter should 

form a perfect letter /. If desired, the lower part of the 

long down stroke may be slightly shaded, to give strength 

to the letter. 

36. The letter ;;/ is exactly like the letter ;/, except that 
it has three parts instead of two, the second- part being a 

repetition of the first. Be sure to get all the 

— down strokes parallel, the same height, the same 

^YY\j " distance apart, and straight. The tops of the 

three parts should be rounded, and the upward 

cur^'es parallel. There should be a point at the 
bottom of the first and the second down stroke, but a round 
turn at the bottom of the third. 

3T. In the letter 7i make all the upward lines good, full 
cun-es. See that the tops are turns, not points. 
Both the do^Ti strokes should be straight to the 



^Y\j line. There should be a point at the bottom of 

the first down stroke, but a turn at the bottom 

of the second; other than this the two parts are 
alike. Be careful to get thp down strokes parallel as well 
as straight. 



13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 17 

38. The letter o should be nearly or quite round. A 

common error is to leave it open at the top; 

~ avoid this. The first downward stroke should 



{^ "" not make a loop with the line connecting this 

.^ letter to the preceding one ; be very careful about 

this, and also see that the down stroke is a full 
curve. Many writers are apt to make this line too straight. 

39. Make the first upward stroke in the letter/, when 

it follows another letter, a full curve; many fail 
by making it a straight line. The down stroke 
should be a straight line from two spaces above 
the base line to one below. It may be shaded a 
little at the bottom if desired. Study the last 
half of this letter carefully; it must be made quickly to be 
made well. Note how closely it resembles an inverted c. 

40. The first part of the letter q is the same as a. The 

downward line should be straight from top to 
• bottom, and extend one space below the base 




Qy ' line. The loop of this letter is turned on the 

i opposite side from that of the letter^. It joins 

the main down stroke at the line and then goes 
upward with a right curve. 

41. Use the fingers in making the top of the letter r. 
The errors in forming this letter consist in making the top 

too pointed or too round, and in making the 

^— ^~ letter too wide. The sharp, retraced point of 

^y this letter should extend above the one- space 
, line. Be sure to make the first up stroke prop- 
erly, or you will not be able to get a sharp point 
at the top of the letter. Pay special attention to this letter, 
as you will find it rather difficult to master. 

42. The height of the letter .y is the same as that of the let- 

ter r. To be successful with this letter, you must 

;v-_ — , make the first line nearly straight. The down line 

— should retrace the up stroke less than one-fourth 
"~ ' of a space, and the letter is this much more than 



18 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. § 13 

one space high. The down stroke should be very heavily 
curved. Study carefully how the letter is finished. 

43, The full height of the letter / is nearly two spaces. 
Up to one space high it is the letter /; above this it is 

a slightly shaded straight stroke, one space in 
— length. If shaded, see that the shade is square 
across the top, and that the heaviest part of the 

shade is at the highest point. The shade should 

extend only one-half the length of the letter. 

Be sure to get the cross of the letter one and one-half spaces 
above the ruling, and one space long. See that it crosses 
the letter, instead of being two or three spaces to the right, 
as we often see it. 

44, . The letter u is practically a letter / and the last two 
strokes of a second letter i. This letter should be made 

entirely with the muscular movement. Make 

■ ■ the upward strokes full curves, and the down- 

lyjy ward ones straight to the line.. Have them 

parallel, one space high, and one space apart. 

Be sure that neither of the down strokes retraces 

an up stroke. The tops of this letter should be pointed and 
the turns at the bottom should be round. 

45, Be sure to make the top of the first part of the letter v 

a round turn and not an angle. Do not make 

the space between the first down stroke and the 

^y^ second up stroke too wide. The bottom of the 

letter should be a round turn, not a sharp point. 

The finishing horizontal curved line should be 

turned away from the up stroke at an angle and should 
be only one-half a space long. 

46, The letter iv is the first four strokes of a u with the 

last stroke of the letter v added. See that the 

— j-j_j- — down strokes are parallel, and that the top of the 

- — ■ third part is only one-half a space from the last 

down stroke. See that the points at the top of 
the letter are sharp; do not make the middle one a loop, as 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 19 

is often done. See that the finishing line to the right is 
only one-half a space long. Do not shade this letter. 

4*7. The letter x is peculiar in form. The first part of 

it resembles an inverted <;, while the last part is 

. nearly two-thirds of the back of a c. Study its 



-r^ — form and proportions carefully, and endeavor to 

' produce a neat and graceful letter. Be careful 
not to make this letter too wide ; it should be no 
wider than its height. 

48. The first part of the letter y is the three strokes in 

the last part of the letter n ; the last part is the 

• inverted loop, as in the letter g. Be careful not 



3 



'\Ju to make too much space between the first and the 

(\ second part. See that the down strokes are 

straight and parallel. If you make this letter 

correctly, it will be, if you turn the paper around, a perfect h. 

49. The first two strokes of the letter z are nearly the 

same as in the letter x ; then, turning at an angle 

. with a short horizontal curve to the right, finish 

^y with the inverted loop, as in the letters g and y. 

Be sure to make the down stroke in the first part 

curved. Do not make the right horizontal curve 

too long. Be sure you curve the down stroke of the loop 

but very little. 

FIGURES. 

50. Main Points. — It is exceedingly important to be 
able to make good figures. A poorly made figure may lead 
to an expensive mistake. Figures must be made rapidly, as 
well as good. 

To do this requires much careful study and practice. 
Most beginners make their figures too large. Before prac- 
ticing a figure, study it until you have a good picture of it 
in your mind; then train the hand to produce it. All 
figures extend one and one-half spaces above the line. 



20 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. § 13 

except the 6, which extends two. Shade but very little, if 
at all. The 7 and 9 extend one-half space below the line. 
Make the figures with the combined movement. Observe 
carefully the following points regarding the making of each 



51. This figure should be a short, straight down stroke, 
one and one-half spaces high. If shaded at all, 

it should be below half the height. Do not 

shade heaviest at the top, or make the stroke a 

heavy one all the way down. Be sure that this 

stroke is straight. Some writers precede the 

down stroke with a short upward tick ; do not do this. 



S 



52. This is not a difficult figure to make, if the follow- 
ing directions are carefully obser^-ed. Be sure 
to leave three-fourths of a space between the 
first down stroke or tick and the main down 

stroke of the figure. Many people spoil the 

figure by making these strokes too near together. 
Be careful to have the small loop at the bottom extend well 
to the left of the top loop. 

53. Make the top loop the same as in the 2, but smaller. 

Be sure to have a good quarter space between 
the first and the second down stroke. Let the 
middle loop point straight to the left. Finish 

the letter with a light upward line, or with a 

dot, about one-third of a space above the line. 

If this figure is shaded at all, it should be on the last down 

stroke. 

54. See that the second down stroke is no higher than 

the first, and that the horizontal stroke is a little 
above the line and nearly parallel with it. The 



S 



L: down strokes should be parallel and vertical. 

. The second should end on the base line. If 

it is so desired, the first down stroke may be 
shaded a little. 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 21 

55. After forming the angle at the bottom of the first 
stroke, carry the curve upwards and to the right 
(this is where many fail); then continue the 



r) curve, forming seven-eighths of an oval and end- 

. . ing a little above the base line and a little to the 

left of the first down stroke. Begin the straight 
horizontal line at the same place as the first down stroke. 
Make the figure plainly, so that it will not be taken for a S. 

56. Be careful to get the first stroke straight and ver- 
tical. Remember what has been said about the 
height of this figure. See that there is a proper 



O space between the first down stroke in the figure 

and the down stroke in the oval. Do not make 

the oval too wide, and do not connect it to the 
down stroke. This figure maybe shaded at the top if desired. 

57. See that the first down stroke is a short one, not 
much more than a dot. A slight double curve 
in the horizontal line to the right will add quite 
a little to the neatness of the figure. Be sure 
that the second and long down stroke is vertical. 
It should extend about one-half space below the 
base line, and may also be shaded a little. 

^^. In this figure, make the double curved stroke first, 
and be sure that the curves are as full as in the 
copy. Notice the bottom loop; it should be 



-Cd 



^ larger than the top one. Have the upward 

. cross the downward line a little above the 

center. This is a peculiar and rather difficult 
figure ; give it plenty of study and practice. 

59. The bottom of the oval should be one-half a space 
above the base line. The first half of this figure 
is like the body of a letter a. The bottom of 
the down stroke may extend one-half a space 
below the base line, and may also, if desired, 
be shaded a little. Be sure that the down stroke 
is straight and vertical. 



-e 



2'Z VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. § 13 

60. A vertical line drawn through the long diameter of 
this figure should divide it exactly in the center. 
See that the two curves are equal and that they 



() come together at the top. Avoid the common 

error of making the downward stroke straight. 

The down stroke may be slightly shaded if 
desired. Some writers prefer a small circle instead of an 
oval ; try both and see which you like better. 

If the above directions are carefully followed, and the 
copies faithfully studied, you will have no trouble in making 
figures that will be a credit to you and a source of much 
pleasure to those who may have to read them. Practice 
them in lines and in columns, as well as in combinations. 
The ability to make good figures means the ability to make 
them in every wav in which thev are used in business. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 

61. How Made. — The capital letters should be made 
almost entirely with the muscular movement. To make 
good capitals you must pay particular attention to the move- 
ment. The hand must slide on the tips of the third and 
fourth fingers, which are held in the manner shown in the 
figures. Be careful to see that neither the wrist nor the side 
of the hand touches the paper. Keep the body erect and the 
feet squarely on the floor. Use light shades and a steady, 
even movement. It is a common fault with beginners to 
make one part of a letter faster than another. Be careful to 
avoid this, as it is fatal to good results. 

62. This style of letter^ is almost exactly like the small 

letter a. Note the hook-like beginning and how 
~ it connects with the last down stroke. The first 
down stroke should be a full cur\'e, and may be 

shaded a little if desired. The last down, or fin- 
ishing, stroke ends with a slight curve, to give 

the letter a graceful appearance. Be careful not to make the 

oval too wide. 



I 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 23 

63, In making the letter B^ be sure that the first down 

stroke is verticah The height of the letter is two spaces. 

Make the ovals in the main part of this letter 

Y^ full and smooth. See that the small loop in the 



cJ center of the letter points straight to the left. 

Do not make a loop at the bottom of the first 

down stroke, and see that both ovals are about 
the same size. Ovals, to be well made, must be made 
quickly. 

64. Some prefer to begin the letter C with a large 
loop; others prefer to have a very short loop, not much 
more than a dot. In raaking this letter be sure not to use 

the fingers, for if you do you will make a sharp 

E^j angle in it, and thus spoil the beautiful curve 
_y of the letter. Be careful to give the left side of 

this letter a full curve. Many fail in this, and 

make it straight. Make full turns at the top and 
bottom of the letter, and you will be sure to have good 
results. Do not make the shade very heavy, but see that it 
is smooth and bright. 

65. In making this letter use the muscular movement 

as much as possible. Study carefully the pro- 



~r\ portions cf each part of the letter, noting par- 

\Jy ticularly the position and shape of the small loop 



at the bottom of the first down stroke. To make 

this letter well will require a great deal of prac- 
tice ; do not, therefore, slight it. 

66. Use only the muscular movement. The secret of 

making a good letter E is in making the ovals full, and in 

having the small loop in the middle of the letter 

CI point across the letter at a right angle. Be care- 

■ V y ful to give the proper space between the first and 

■ the second down stroke in the upper part of 

the letter. See that all the curves are full and 
broad.' The bottom half of this letter is larger in everyway 
than the top. 



s 



24 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. § 13 

67. In this letter make the top first, then the capital 
stem. In making the top of this letter, make a very small 
loop or tick about one space to the left of the capital stem, 

and then carry a double curved line to the right, 

p7 to the top of the stem. Many spoil the top by 

cT making it straight. Do not do this, but make it 
with full curves. A description of the capital 

stem and the manner of making it is as follows: 
Beginning at the top of the stem, two spaces above the line ; 
descend about half way with a left curve, verge into a right 
cun-e, and continue to the line; carry it one space to the 
left, then upwards one-half space, ending with a dot. 

68. The most common point of failure in the G is in 
making the bottom of the oval. It should be 
large and full. Too many make it small and 
pointed. Some fail by making the left side of 

^ the loop nearly or quite straight. The oval 

should be two spaces long, coming down to the 
base line. The second part of the letter should be two 
spaces long and like an inverted /. 

69. The first part of the letter 77 is a vertical stem end- 

ing with a small oval on the base line. The last 
part of the letter is made by beginning at the 
full height of the letter and coming down with a 

full left curve for nearly half its height, then 

verging into a straight line continuing to the 

base line. Add the connecting stroke, and finish with a 
horizontal curve. See that both the downward lines are 
vertical. Be careful not to get the space between the two 
parts too wide. 

70. The full height of the letter / is two spaces; the 
width of the top loop is nearly one space. The 
width of the bottom oval is one and one-half 
spaces. The first upward and the downward line 

should cross one-fourth of a space above the base 

line. See that the bottom loop is carried well 

to the left and is made without a break. Some finish this 



tM^ 



a 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 25 

letter with a dot, one- half a space above the base line, at 
nearly the same distance to the left of the extreme edge of 
the full curve. 

•71. The difficult part of the letter J is in making- the 
long, vertical down stroke. Some prefer to make the lower 
part two spaces below the base line, and some only one. 
Some also prefer to make the top loop twice as 
wide as the bottom one, while some prefer to 
have them alike. We think that, if the top loop 
is a little larger than the bottom one, it gives a 
style to the letter not obtained by either of the 
above. See that both of the curved up strokes cross the 
main down stroke at nearly the same place, just above the 
base line and in front of the main down stroke. 

72. The first part of the letter /^is exactly like that of 

H. The second part of this letter is formed as follows: 

Begin at the full height of the letter, about two spaces, and 

two spaces to the right of the first part ; descend on nearly 

the connective slant, with first a left and then a 

right curve, to the center of the letter; then. 



S 



Z. forming a small loop pointing to the left and 

encircling the first down stroke of the letter, 

descend with a vertical line, and finish with a 
graceful curve. Be sure to use both a left and a right curve 
in the first stroke of the second part of the letter. Many fail 
to do this, and use a right curve all the way down to the 
small loop, and thus completely spoil the letter. Be sure 
that the little loop points across the first part of the letter at 
right angles, or you will not be able to get the last down 
stroke in its proper place. 

•73. The down stroke in this letter must be vertical. 

Note the wide hook at the top, and study the 

p • position and formation of the small horizontal 

~_ A y loop at the bottom. See that the finishing line 
is heavily curved and parallel with the base line. 

The most common points of failure are in the 
down stroke and horizontal loop. 




I 



26 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. § 13 

74, The main points to obvServc in this letter are that 

the top of the vSeeond down stroke is lower than the top of 

the first, and that the top of the third down 

stroke is lower than the top of the second ; also, 



m 



a 



y that the down strokes in these lines are vertical, 

parallel, and a little less than one space apart. 

Let the turns at the top be short but round, the 
last turn at the bottom the same, and end with a full right 
curve. 

75. The letter N is the same as the first and the 

third part of the M. The same things may 

. be said regarding the special points to ob- 

~} serve. The downward strokes in this letter 

should be about three-fourths of a space apart, 

and parallel. The turns should be short but 
full. Many fail on this letter by making it too wide. Do 
not do this. 

76. The two most common errors in making the letter O 
are the making of the first down stroke too straight and the 

turn at the base too short. Be sure to give the 
same degree of curvature to both sides of the 
letter. Make the letter round and without a 

^ break ; a sharp point in it destroys the appear- 
ance of the letter. If this letter is shaded, it 

should be on the first down stroke, and the ends of the shade 

should be nicely tapered. 

77. The height of the capital stem in the letter P, as in 

all others in which it appears, is two spaces. 

The oval at the right should be nearly round, 

about one and one-half spaces in diameter, and 
finished with a dot a short distance from the 

stem. This letter to the finishing dot is like B 
wid R. Study these three letters together and compare 
them carefully. 



E 



g: 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 27 

TS. The first part of the letter Q is the same as the figure 
2, but larger. Add the horizontal loop one space 
in length, cross the main down stroke, touch the 
base line, and finish with a right curve. Study 

the first part very carefully. Be sure that the 

long diameter of the small loop is parallel with 

the ruling, and that the finishing line is an easy curve. 



79. The height of the stem in the letter R is the same 
as in the other letters in which it appears. This letter, as 

far as the small loop, is nearly identical with the 

— '^ letter P. The small loop, at one-half the height 

I ly of the letter, should point across the down stroke 

at an angle. Descend from the loop to the base 

line with a straight stroke, touch the line, and 
finish with a full right curve. 

80. The usual difficulty with the letter 5 is to get enough 
curve to the up stroke, also to get enough curve to the down 

stroke. Make these curves very full and you 
will not have very much trouble with this letter. 
See that the lines cross at about one and one- 
fourth spaces high. Keep all the shade below 
the crossing point ; the nearer the line you can 



3 



get it, the better will be the effect. Finish the letter with 
an oval and dot as shown. 

81. The two parts of the letter 7" are the capital stem 

and the top. Make the capital stem just as 
described for the letter F, also the top. The 
horizontal part of the top should be nearly paral- 

lei with the line of writing. Note the position of 

the shade and the ending of the stem. This is a 

difficult letter; give it plenty of study and practice. 

82. The first part of the letters U, V, and ^are alike. 
The most difficult part of these letters is the down stroke. 



a 



28 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. § 13 

Form the hook, ^nvin^^ the oval a full curve; descend with a 

straight line nearly to the base line, make a short turn, and 

ascend with a right curve one and one-half spaces 

— high and one space to the right of the first down 



f[j stroke ; then descend with a straight line to the 

, base line, turn short, and finish with a right 

curve. See that the main down stroke is straight 
for two full spaces. Confine the shade to this straight line ; 
it is quite a common error to shade too high. See that the 
down strokes are parallel and that the second down stroke 
does not retrace the up stroke. 

83. Form the first half of the letter V to the base line 
exactly like the U ; then turn short and ascend 
with a right curve to one and one-half spaces 



[/ above the base line; finish with a short hori- 

zontal curve to the right. The width of this 

letter at one-half its height is one space. See 
that the down stroke is straight and vertical; it is a common 
error to make it curved. 



84. This is the letter U with the second down stroke 
as high as the first and the last part of a F added. 
Both down strokes should be straight and vertical. 



\aJ Study and compare this letter and the U and F, 

. carefully noting their proportions and points of 

similarity. Do not make a loop in the middle 
of this letter; it spoils it. 

85. This capital letter is made exactly like the small let- 
ter X, Note the full curves in each part; study 
how the parts differ in form. Give special 
attention to the beginning and the ending hooks, 

dots, and curved lines. See that the second 

down stroke meets but does not cross the first 

down stroke. This is a difficult letter and needs careful 

study. 



s 



13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 29 

86, The letter Fis the letter f/with an inverted / loop 
added. See that both down strokes are vertical. 
— The last up stroke should cross the long down 



1 1 stroke at the base line. Watch the shades and 

(I the turn at the bottom of the first down stroke. 

For other points to observe in this letter, see the 
capital C/and small j. 

87. The first part of the letter Zis nearly the same as 

the first part of the letter g, except that the down 

— j-^ — > stroke is not carried quite so far to the left. 

\_J y Form the loop, then turn to the right and descend 

with a slight right curve one space ; then ascend 

with a full left curve, crossing the down line at 

the base line and finishing at one space high. 



LESSO]!^ PAPERS. 



JLESSON NO. 1. 

Vertical writing takes its name from the vertical down 
strokes which appear in almost every letter. - Special care 
should, therefore, be taken in this style of writing to see that 
the down strokes are made as nearly vertical as possible. If, 
however, better writing can be done with the down strokes 
slanting slightly forwards or backwards, it is allowable, and 
such writing will be accepted by us and graded according to 
its quality. 

In practicing the exercises in this Lesson, be sure that 
your position is correct and that your arm moves easily and 
freely, for no good writing can be done in a cramped position. 

Ijine No. 1. — The characters in this line are the figure 1 
and the small letters i and u. In making the figure 1 see 
that it is at right angles to the line on which the writing is 
being done. Make all the lines in the i and the u of the 
same weight or strength, and keep the down strokes in the 
u parallel, the same height, and vertical. See that the dot 



30 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



§13 



5 
8 
S 



o 

CO 
CO 
UJ 






- ^ 



^ 
^ 
^ ^ 









— cS 



CO 



Ui 



I 



I 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 31 

for i is directly over the down stroke and about one space 
above it. 

Xiine 2. — Study the m and n carefully. Read what is 
said about these letters under Detailed Instructions in the 
Instruction Paper. Note what strokes are straight, what 
parts are sharp points, and where the round turns occur. 

Try to write with a free, rolling motion, so that the tops 
of ;// and n will have somewhat the appearance of folded 
ribbon, and so that the lines will have that smooth and grace- 
ful appearance which is so pleasing in good writing. 

liine 3. — Turn to the Detailed Instructions for v and 
w^ in the Instruction Paper, and study what is said about 
these letters and try to carry it out in your practice. These 
are not particularly difficult letters, but need careful study 
and considerable practice. 

Xiines 4 and 5. — All the exercises in these lines are 
combinations of the letters previously introduced. These 
combinations are of frequent occurrence, and should have 
careful study. Try to write them in such a manner as to 
give the writing a neat and pleasing appearance. In such 
words as nin^ niin^ etc., the more like a folded ribbon you 
can make the writing look, the better it will be. Study the 
figures carefully and practice from those on the side of the 
copy-slips. Good figures are a necessity in all kinds of 
business, and the ability to make them well and quickly is a 
valuable accomplishment. 



liESSON" NO. 3. 

The exercises in this Lesson are a drill on extended letters, 
both above and below the line. Study each letter carefully, 
and in making them follow closely the Detailed Instructions, 
as given for each in the Instruction Paper. 

liine 1.— See that the down stroke in / is vertical for 
its entire length. Note where the cross line is placed; be 
sure to have it cross the letter instead of being placed to one 



■6-i 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP 



n3 



^ cO oQ 



O 

CO 
CO 
Ll! 



1 



-^ 






4^ 



=^ 






-§ 



.=^. 



■^ 



=4 



i -^ 



=^ 



-I 



, =1 



^ 



s 



<-:5 






> 

-N-^ 






■ ■-• 


r-- 




^ 




- 


■-. '^) 






— = 


P 




— => 


^ 
f~^ ^ 


V 








— o 


^ 




"'-"O 


Ci^ 


.-.> 



^ 

< 



^ 

1 



-^ 



- oi CO 



LO 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 33 

side of it. The loop in / should be open and clear. Do not 
make this letter too tall ; it is usually made the same height 
as /, although it may be made a little taller if desired. 

Iiiiie 2. — The letter/ is quite easy to make; seeHhat the 
down stroke is vertical, that the loop is open, and that the 
dot is directly over the down stroke and nearly one space 
above it. The most difficult part of the k is the small hori^ 
zontal loop in the last part of the letter. Study carefully its 
position and shape, also the Detailed Instructions for making 
it, in the Instruction Paper. 

liine 3. — The letters k and d are the same height, and to 
the bottom of the first down stroke they are alike. The 
bottom, or last, part of the /i should be like the strokes of the 
small n. Take pains with the last part of the d; it should 
be open, and like the last part of a v. 

Ijine 4. — Study the / carefully. Note how the last part 
connects with the first, and see that the down stroke is 
straight for its entire length. Study the j carefully, and 
compare it with an inverted k; see that both down strokes 
are parallel and vertical. 

Hiine 5. — All down strokes should be vertical and the 
same distance apart. Study carefully the height and spac- 
ing; also, take pains to have the sharp points and round 
turns in their proper places. 

Use a free movement in all your work, and try to get good, 
smooth lines. Write at a good rate of speed ; it will make 
your writing smooth and give it that, easy, flowing appear- 
ance so pleasing in good writing. 



liESSOISr NO. 3. 

Ijine 1. — Be sure that all the ^'s are round, and where 
they connect do not allow the down stroke to retrace the 
connecting line. Note the small hook in the top of the c. 
Be careful not to make this hook in such a manner as to 
make the letter look like e. Do not close the letter too 



I 



34: 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP 



§13 



o 
0-" 






o 



z: 

O 

CO 

c/:) 

IxJ 




6 


a 


!^ 


6 


a 


d= 


6 


8 


6° 



— (N 



CO 



IC 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 35 

much, or it may be mistaken for o. The e in vertical wri- 
ting may be made as illustrated, or as in the slanted style. 
In the copy here given, the last stroke of the preceding let- 
ter touches the e nearer the top than v^^here the loop begins. 
This makes it necessary for us to take the pen off at the end 
of the connecting stroke and begin again at the point where 
the loop begins, and passing upwards, then downwards, form- 
ing the loop and connecting the letter with the last stroke of 
the preceding one. Practice both styles of this letter, and 
see which you like better, then use that style in your work. 

Line 3. — The a and the bottom of the d are alike. See 
that the body of the a is round, and that the down stroke is 
vertical. The down stroke in d should be straight for its 
entire length. The down stroke in the figures P, 6, and 7 
should also be straight and vertical. The ovals in and 6' 
should be round and ftill. The cipher is a full oval but not 
quite a circle. If a circle is used for the cipher it should rest 
on the line, and be about the size of the oval in the 9. Study 
the top of 7 very carefully. If it is found very difficult to 
make the double curve in the horizontal stroke, then this 
stroke may be made straight. Care must be taken to make 
the figures plain and legible. 

Ijine 3. — The top of the g and the q is made like ^, and 
the bottom of the g is like an inverted /. The down stroke 
in q is like that in g^ but the loop is turned to the right-hand 
instead of the left-hand side. Both letters require consider- 
able practice. 

Xiines 4 and. 5. — The words in these lines are made up 
of letters previously given in these Lessons. Each letter 
should appear to stand by itself, the connecting lines being 
made in such a way as to give the letters the appearance of 
having been written separately and then connected together. 
Study carefully where sharp points are to be used and where 
round turns should appear. Make each letter and part of a 
word at the same rate of speed. Keep all lines of the same 
strength. Make all loop letters open and plain. Be careful 
not to make a loop in a letter where none is needed. Always 



30 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



§13 



I 



o 

00 

an 
u 






^ 
^ 
^ 



^ 



GO 
CO 



^ 
^2_ 



t 



8 


^ 


a 


p 


8 


p 



a 



— O) CO 



LO 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 37 

write with a free movement and at a good rate of speed ; this 
will make the lines smooth and give a pleasing appearance 
to the writing. 



LESsoi^ isro. 4. 

Ijine 1. — The first part of x and z and the last part of / 
are quite similar. In the x note how the two parts join, and 
how the curves at the top and bottom separate. See that 
the connecting line between the letters is a compound curve, 
and that in making it you do not separate the letters too 
much. The loop in the z should be but one space long. 
Study its position carefully, and in making it see that both 
sides have the same amount of curvature. 



Liine 2. — Study what is said in the Instruction Paper 
regarding r and ^, and try to carry it out in your practice 
on these letters. Both these letters are rather difficult to 
make, and must, therefore, have a great deal of careful 
study. 

Lines 3 and 4. — The words in these lines are rather diffi- 
cult combinations; therefore, study them carefully and com- 
pare each letter with the Detailed Instructions for that letter 
as given in the Instruction Paper. Note how each letter is, 
connected with the others, and watch the height and the 
spacing. 

Ijine 5. — This sentence brings into use quite a variety of 
words, and is one that will produce very good results if given 
proper study and practice. Pay special attention to the loop 
letters, and take pains to have all down strokes vertical and 
parallel. Do your best with this Lesson and let us see just 
how well you can do. Always use a free movement and 
write at a good rate of speed, for if you slowly draw the let- 
ters you will not get the smooth lines that add so much to 
the appearance of writing. 



■66 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



§13 






-^ 

3 



Q^ 

^ 

-^ 



4 

3 



^ 







> 



o 

CD 
(D 
LlI 



o 



CU 



4 



-i i 



5 



^ 



"> 



3 



d 

d 
d 



^ ^ 

■N W 






22 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 39 

LESSON NO. 5. 

Iiines 1 and 2. — All capital letters should be made with 
a free, swinging movement and at a good rate of speed; 
smooth lines cannot be had if the lines are slowly drawn 
with the finger movement. In the words given, do not 
take the pen off between the capital and the rest of the 
word; when once you begin a word, write it without stop- 
ping until it is finished. Watch the spacing and height of 
each letter ; see that the down strokes are parallel. 

Iiine 3. — There are a great many vertical strokes in this 
line. Examine your work carefully, and see if you have 
made them all correctly. 

Ijines 4 and 5. — In writing these sentences endeavor to 
make each word look as smooth and graceful as in the copies. 
This can only be done by writing at a fair rate of speed and 
making graceful turns at the top of such letters as m and n 
and at the bottom of i and ii^ and by making the a and o^ 
and all letters of which they form a part, with an easy, 
rolling movement. Hold the pen easily, let the arm rest 
lightly and move freely and without effort. Practice 
thoughtfully and you will not have any trouble in making 
presentable work. 

I.ESSON NO. 6. 

liine 1. — See that the first parts of the H and the K are 
alike. Make the tops of the n'% and the first part of the y 
round. See that the ^'s are perfect circles and that the 
body of the s is broad. Study the capital M carefully, and 
see that the down strokes are vertical and parallel. 

liine 2. — The first part of N, V, and U are exactly like 
the first part of M. Study the last part of each of these 
letters carefully, and endeavor to make thcni as near like 
the copies as possible. The last word on this line is an 
excellent copy to practice from, as the small letters in it are 



40 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



§13 



O 
(S) 
(J) 




— CN) CO 



lO 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 41 

quite full and round, and enough extended letters are given 
to illustrate the height and spacing of this class of letters. 

liine 3. — Compare the capitals Wand V with the letters 
U and V. The small ^ is rather a difficult letter and will 
need careful attention. Study it closely and note what is 
said regarding it under Detailed Instructions. 

Lines 4 and 5. — Careful practice on the words in these 
lines will do much to produce that flowing, rolling move- 
ment which makes this style of writing so plain to read and 
so pleasing in appearance. Always compare your work with 
the copies, and criticise it carefully. Write at a good rate 
of speed, and use an easy, rolling movement. 



LESSOX >0. 7. 

Line 1. — The last part of the capital / should be a full 
right curve. The loop in the top of this letter should be 
vertical. Note how it compares with the loop in the small /. 
The first part of X and Q are alike. See that the curves in 
these letters are unbroken and that the lines are smooth. 
Note how these letters connect with the rest of the 
word. 

liine 2. — The first part of Z is almost like that of X and 
Q. The difficult parts of this letter are the horizontal loop 
and the loop below the line. Study the- copy carefully, also 
what is said under Detailed Instructions for this letter. T 
and F are exactly alike, except the horizontal stroke across 
the center of F. Review the Detailed Instructions for these 
letters. 

Line 3. — See that the hook at the top of L is quite broad, 
that the down stroke is straight and vertical, and that the 
small loop at the bottom of the letter is parallel with tlie 
line of writing. 



u 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



§13 






do 






X 



> 

o 

CO 
00 
LJ 






,y 






-^ 








C^ 


^ 


=3 






'=^ 


C^ 


^ 


^ 


CY= 


^ 



— c^ 



CO 



13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



43 



o 

if) 

LU 




44 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. § 13 

Ijincs 4 and 5. — Each of the words in these sentences 
should be written from beginning to end without raising the 
pen. As each word is written, study it carefully to see if 
all the letters are properly formed and if all straight down 
strokes are vertical, o^ c, and a should be almost perfect 
circles, and should be made fast enough to get good, smooth 
lines. Always compare your writing with the copy. 



JLESSON NO. 8. 

The object of this Lesson is to give practice in writing 
several lines in succession. This is often called body writing, 
and is the severest test of good penmanship. Many people 
are able to write some letters, or a few words, well, but 
when a number of lines or a page is written, their inability 
to wrrite the same good style continuously is forcibly brought 
to their attention. Writing of the class in this Lesson should 
be done quite rapidly in order to get smooth, clean-cut lines. 
Careful attention must also be paid to the. forms of the 
letters, their height, and spacing. The proper use of rounded 
turns and sharp points undoubtedly adds more to the appear- 
ance of writing than any other one thing. 

Study the copies carefully, and devote a great deal of 
thoughtful, conscientious practice to them, being careful that 
the desire to produce too correct forms does not induce too 
cramped and slow a movement; otherwise the acquirement 
of a smooth and rapid handwriting will be very much delayed, 
if not entirely prevented. 



liESSOK KO. 9. 

This Lesson is a valuable one, as it introduces actual busi- 
ness forms, the correct use of which adds much to the appear- 
ance of a written communication. 

The first part of this Lesson introduces a letter heading, 
and not only shows how it should be written, but illustrates 
the proper arrangement and punctuation. Practice on this 



§13 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



45 



X 



o 

CO 
CO 
LJ 



60 



M 



-o 



^ 



Q^ 




46 



VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 



§13 



X 



O 

00 
UJ 




1 



3 

z 

■o 

c 
a 

3 
o 

-I 
n 

3) 

O 

3 
O 

> 



I 



• 



§ 13 VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 47 

section of the Lesson until you can write it well; then vary 
it by making such changes as will give you practice on the 
headings and addresses you most often use. The second 
part shows the correct style for addressing envelopes. Vary 
this practice by using such names and addresses as you often 
write, and then return to the copy. 

Put double the amount of study and practice on this Les- 
son that you have on any of the others, and let us see how 
much improvement you can make and how well you can do. 



liESSOK KO. 10. 

This is the last Lesson in the Paper, and for it we have 
selected a copy that is not only valuable because of the excel- 
lent practice it affords, but also because it will give you a 
specimen, prepared under instruction, to compare with that 
written at the beginning of the course of lessons. Note care- 
fully the arrangement of the different parts of the exercise, 
paying particular attention to those which you are to add, 
and endeavor to follow this arrangement in your work. 

Only thoughtful, conscientious practice can produce the 
best results. Apply yourself earnestly, and you will be suc- 
cessful in making satisfactory improvement and acquiring a 
good handwriting. 



GRAMMAR. 

(PART 1.) 



r^rTiiODijCTio:^'. 



liAlS^GUAGE AlSJy GRA^OIAR. 

1, Language in General. — In its widest sense, the 
word la7igiiage includes every means by which thought or 
feeling- may be made known. Thus, we speak of the 
"various language " of nature and of the language of paint- 
ing, sculpture, and architecture. Everything in nature, as 
well as everything that bears marks of the thought and labor 
of man, speaks, more or less plainly, a language. The world 
is full of inanimate things that tell of human hope and pur- 
pose and struggle, of achievement and taste and refinement. 
Such thought and feeling as the lower anim^als are capable 
of, they can, more or less intelligibly, make known. 

But this dumb and wordless language requires no gram- 
matical treatment, for it makes no use of nouns and verbs, 
or of words and sentences. It is the langnaage of man alone 
that is governed by laws, and is, therefore, capable of being 
reduced to a science. 

There are many ways in which man may make his thought 
known to others; as, for example, by grimace, gesture, the 
signs of the deaf and dumb, symbols, pictorial writing, and 
pictures. But better than any or all of these are oral speech 
and written language. It is chiefly by this faculty of speech 
that man is distinguished from the lower animals, and this 
faculty is so far above the power of expression possessed by 

§ 14 

For notice of the cop^-right, see page inimediately following the title jMige. 



2 GRAMMAR. § 14 

brutes that many people believe human language to have 
been a gift of divine origin. 

2, Origin of the Word " Language." — The word 
language is derived from the Latin word lingua^ ' ' the tongue " ; 
and, since this is the chief organ used in speech, the word for 
tongue is employed in many languages to mean oral speech. 
In the early history of our race, language was spoken, but not 
written. With the advance of civilization came the need for 
some form of language more lasting than mere verbal utter- 
ance. This gave rise to the first attempts to record thought 
by writing. These, we are told, were at first mere symbols 
or rude pictures so arranged as to have a meaning more or 
less plain, and" traces of these pictures are said to remain in 
the letters of our own alphabet. Thus, it is now believed 
that our letter A has taken its present form from the repre- 
sentation of an eagle by the ancient Egyptians, B from that 
of a crane^ C from the picture of a throne^ etc. 

The term language denoted at first only spoken thought, 
but its meaning was extended as explained above. But, for 
grammatical science, the only kinds of language considered 
are spoken and written. 

Definition. — ILanguage, as treated in grammar^ is the 
body of uttered and written signs employed by men to express 
and eoniviunicate their tJioughts. 

3. liiving Ijanguages. — As has been stated, written 
language was an outgrowth from mere speech; and each 
language, both spoken and written, continues to grow and 
to improve as long as the people using it maintain their 
national existence. Discovery, invention, and change of 
every kind are constantly bringing many things never before 
heard of — new articles of manufacture, new processes, new 
wants and tastes and arts and sciences. These require exact 
expression, and many new words must be devised. On the 
other hand, old things pass away, and the words that named 
them get to be useless and afe no longer employed ; that is, 
they become obsolete. So rapid is this process of change 
that our own tongue as it was written a thousand years ago is 



§ 14 GRAMMAR. 3 

as difficult to us now as the Greek, the Latin, or the German. 
Letters have taken on new forms, words have changed both 
in their form and their meaning or have passed entirely out 
of use, and the spelling and pronunciation of those that 
remain are now very different from what they were some 
hundreds of years ago. 

A language, while it is in its actual use and is undergoing 
these additions, losses, and changes, is said to be a living 
language. 

4. Dead Languages. — It has often happened in the 
history of the world that entire peoples have lost their 
country by attack from without. In such events, they have 
sometimes been driven out by the invaders, reduced to 
slavery, and gradually destroyed ; or, deprived of their 
political powers and rights, they have been permitted to 
remain in their country, and by a slow process of absorp- 
tion, have merged their identity as a people into that of 
their conquerors. Many examples of such national catas- 
trophes will occur to the student. The Roman Empire was 
destroyed in this way by the barbarian ancestors of the peo- 
ple that now inhabit Northern Europe. The Latin language 
was soon no longer spoken in its purity, but was mixed with 
the speech of the conquerors. In the passing of the cen- 
turies, there were thus formed what are known as the 
Romance languages — the Italian, the French, the Spanish, 
and the Portuguese. All that remained of the Latin language 
was what was found in the books that had been written in 
that tongue before the fall of the Roman Empire. Many of 
these have been lost during the long period since, but enough 
remain to show that these people had the richest literature 
at that time in the world. 

But, however great has been the change wrought upon the 
Latin language by the races that overthrew the people of 
Rome, many of the books written by great authors of the 
ruined nation remained unchanged. These still give us in 
its purity the wonderful language of Rome — the kinguage of 
Livy and Tacitus, of Cicero and Caisar, of Virgil and Ovid 



4 GRAMMAR. § U 

and Horace. What they wrote nearly twenty centuries ago 
remains today exactly as they wrote it, and without doubt it 
will be studied in the schools for thousands of years to come, 
in the precise form it has at present. In other words, it is a 
dead language. Of these there are many, and all of them 
may, like the Latin, be learned by scholars, and the books 
written thousands of years ago may be read and understood 
as well as we read and understand the books written in our 
own language. 

GRAMMAR. 

5. The Pi'OTince of Gi-animar. — In order to under- 
stand a language, it is necessar}- to be familiar with the 
forms and sounds of its letters and with their various com- 
binations into words. Qf these words we must know the 
forms that are generally approved by the best authorities, 
how they are pronounced, and what they mean when united 
in sentences. If, in consequence of being used in various 
ways, words imdergo changes in form, pronunciation, or 
meaning, the principles and laws that regulate these changes 
must be understood. Besides all this, it is necessary' to be 
familiar with the origin of words, with the elementar}' parts 
that compose them, and with the meaning of these parts 
alone and in combination. Then, too, when words are asso- 
ciated in sentences to express thought, the person that 
speaks or writes, as well as he that hears or reads, must, 
in order to understand exactly what these sentences mean, 
be acquainted with the laws that regulate the order, form, 
and relations of the words in such combinations. Besides all 
this, if we would choose words and aiTange them in sentences 
that shall be smooth and musical, concise and forcible, easily 
understood and in accordance with the best usage, there are 
many other things with which we must be perfectly famihar. 
All this knowledge and much more make up, when in orderly 
arrangement, the science of grammar. Indeed, this subject 
includes so many things, that a short and comprehensive 
definition of grammar is perhaps impossible. One of the 
latest definitions of grammar is as follows: 



§U GRAMMAR. 5 

Definition. — Grammar is the science that treats of the 
principles that govern the correct use of language, either oral 
or written. 

6. Divisions of Grammar. — The subject of grammar 
was formerly divided into four general heads — 

1. Orthography : the grammar of letters, spelling, and 
pronunciation {Orthoepy). 

2. Etymology: the grammar of words — their origin, his- 
tory, composition, and the changes or modifications in form 
and use that they undergo. 

3. Syntax: the grammar of the sentence — its forms, 
varieties, and the dependence and relation among themselves 
of the parts that compose the sentence, as well as the 
arrangement of those parts. 

4. Prosody: the grammar of verse, including everything 
relating to metrical composition. 

*7. Ijater Divisions of Grammar. — The fourfold divi- 
sion of the subject matter of grammar has been omitted 
from nearly all late textbooks on this science. Everything 
included under the subject of orthography is treated in the 
spelling books, the works on phonics, and the dictionaries. 
In like manner, prosody has found a place in the works on 
rhetoric; and thus nothing besides etymology and syntax 
has been left for the textbooks on grammar. Even these 
two subjects have been more or less separated, or have been 
treated only in part, and various kinds of exercises in lan- 
guage and composition have displaced them. But the latest 
and best manuals on grammar have shown a tendency to 
make prominent the grammar of words and the grammar of 
sentences, or in other words etymology and syntax. 

In this work, therefore, the main considerations will be 
the grammar of ivords and the grammar of sentences, inchi- 
ding such principles as are necessary in giving to the sentence 
its approved form and in properly dividing it into its con- 
stituent parts. Many exercises intended to impress these 
principles on the mind of the student will be found throutili- 
out the book. The aim will be to present such a treatment 



6 GRAMMAR. § 14 

of grammar, without unnecessary technical difficulties, as will 
have the greatest possible practical value in the affairs of busi- 
ness and in the general activities of life. It is intended 
to adapt the work for the attainment of the two recognized 
objects of a study — lucntal discipline and practical iisefnl- 
ucss. When both of these ends cannot be realized at the 
same time, the question of usefulness will be given the pre- 
cedence rather than that of discipline. It is doubtful, how- 
ever, whether the development and cultivation of aptitudes 
for usefulness and practical efficiency do not at the same 
time yield ver}- valuable mental discipline. It is certain that 
the mind must direct the body and cooperate with it in every 
voluntar}' physical act, and that difficult and complicated 
action of the physical powers necessitates a high order of 
mental training. 

8. ITnit of Thought in Grammar. — Every subject has 
some central point of interest — some object or matter of con- 
sideration that is of higher importance than any other and 
to which everything else is secondar}^ Thus, in ortJiograpJiy 
the icord'x^ the central idea, in geography it is vian — where 
he is, his surroundings, his wants and how they are supplied; 
ever}'thing belonging to the science gets its importance 
from its relation to the central figure, man. So in grammar 
there must be some leading idea or "unit " of greatest inter- 
est and importance. What is it ? Let us consider. 

In orthography and etymology it is the word that fixes the 
attention. But these are divisions of grammar that are only 
preparatory to the study of a very much more important 
branch of the subject — syntax, the science of the sentence. 
Grammar deals primarily with thought and the forms in 
which thought is expressed by speech and writing. It is 
true that words are necessar}- to the expression of thought ; 
but about words there is nothing fixed or constant. The 
words we use have been divided into classes, and although 
there are in the English language nearly or quite 250,000 
words, they have all been placed in eight classes. Now, 
there are many thousands of words that cannot be classified 



§ 14 GRAMMAR. 7 

until it is ascertained ^Yhat duty or function they perform in 
a sentence. Thus, the word, fish may be used as the 7iame 
of something; it may denote an action; it may describe 
something. In its first use, it belongs in the class of nouns; 
in the second, it is a verb; in its third, it is an adjective. 
These uses are shown in the following sentences: 

As a Noun — Fish breathe by means of gills. 

As a Verb — The boysyfj-/^ in the river. 

As ail Adjective — To use Sijish weir is forbidden by law. 

It appears, then, that words cannot be grouped in classes 
or studied in relation to one another until they take their 
places in sentences. It is in the sentence, therefore, where 
words perform the functions for which they were devised ; 
it is in the sentence that they have their usefulness, their 
interest, and their full significance. They are the materials 
of which men construct the wonderful edifice of expressed 
thought. Their other uses are of much less importance, 
except perhaps the study of their origin, history, and 
composition. 

The sentence is^ therefore^ the imit of thought in grammar. 

9. The Domain of Grammar. — The principal function 
of grammar, therefore, is to investigate the sentence. This 
includes the consideration of its nature, varieties, forms, the 
parts of which it is made up, the relations of these parts to 
one another, and the laws and principles by which the cor- 
rect forms of sentences are regulated. When sentences are 
combined we have the many varieties of composition in prose 
and poetry. The various questions arising with reference 
to the best possible construction of these are discussed in 
other and higher branches of grammar, such as Composition, 
Rhetoric, Philology, and Linguistics in general. 

The student will carefully note that, in the narrow sense 
in which the word grammar is here emplo3'cd, it consists 
mainly in the science of the sentence and of the words that 
enter into its structure. He should remember that in this 
science the all-important matter is the sentence, and that 
around it as a center everything else clusters. 



8 GRAMMAR. § 14 

THE SEXTEXCE. 



CI^lSSIFICATIOX ACCORDIXG TO USE. 

10. The Ari*aiigeiiieut of Words. — There are two 
ways in which words*may be arranged : 

1. Ifidtpc)idintl)\ or out of relation to one another. 

2. Dcpcndtntly, ox -in relation to one another. 

Thus, we may utter or write a number of words so that 
they shall convey no thought : 

the the of in its lays some- nest bird cuckoo other one 0^%%. 

Here, whatever meaning the words may have separately, 
they are all used independently, just as much so as a column of 
words in a spelling book. They are entirely oitJ of relation; 
that is, the meaning of no word has any influence upon that of 
any other. They do not help one another to express a thought. 

Let us now place them /;/ relation ; that is, so that each 
one shall do its share in expressing a thought — in making 
known some truth : 

The cuckoo lays its one ^%% in the nest of some other bird. 

The words used here are the same as those above, but the 
result is different. The words are now in relation, and they 
have a meaning, not only indiA-idually, but collectively. 
They are joined in such way as to express a thought, and the 
thought is complete. We see then that words are arranged in 
relation when by their union they help one another to express 
some meaning different from any of the meanings expressed 
by the words when taken separately. 

11. Sentence Defined. — A word is usually defined as 
the sign of an idea. Thus, the word boy calls up in the mind 
a mental image or representation of a particular kind of object, 
and the word walks a mental picture of an action performed 
by something that acts. These mind pictures considered 
separately are ideas. But when we bring two or more ideas 
into proper relation, we have a thought, provided certain 



§ 14 GRAMMAR. 9 

essential elements are present; and when, either by speech 
or in writing, we properly join the words that call up these 
ideas, the result is a sentence. Hence, it appears that a 
sentence does for a thought just what a word does for an 
idea; that is to say, if a spoken or a written word is the sign 
of an idea, a spoken or written sentence is the sign of a 
thought. We have, therefore, the following 

Definition. — A sentence is a collection of uttered or writ- 
ten words arranged in S2ich order or relation as to express a 
complete thought. 

The boy walks. A fish can swim. "When will he return ? Be very 
careful. How quickly the years pass away. 

12. Words Implied or Understood. — Sentences some- 
times seem to consist of but one word; as, Look. Come. 
The student will obser\^e that these words express action. 
Now, it is clear that ever}' such word requires us to think of 
an actor ^ although the word denoting the actor is not 
expressed. Words that are thus necessar}^ to the complete- 
ness of a thought, but are not expressed, are said to be 
understood. If, in the one-word sentences just given, every 
necessary word were expressed, the sentences would be 
{Yoii) look. (You) come. 

In order, therefore, that a sentence may express a com- 
plete thought, it must consist of words arranged in proper 
relation ; and that this shall be possible, at least two words 
are required. Of these two words, one may be understood^ 
but it must be clearly implied. 

13. Different Uses or Functions of Sentences. — In 

the communication of thought among men, there are only 
three different uses or purposes that are served by sentences: 
1. To Make a Statement or Declaration. — If a person has 
some knowledge or information that he wishes to convey to 
others, that is, if he wishes to tell something, he makes use 
of a form of sentence called a statement or declaration. 

The earth is a sphere. 

An honorable boy is likely to become an honorable man. 

We shall visit the city during the holidays. 



10 GRAMMAR. § U 

)l. To Ask a Question. — A person may desire some infor- 
mation that he believes another person can furnish. In order 
to obtain it, he employs a form of sentence called a qjiestion. 

Is the earth a sphere ? 

Is an honorable boy likely to become an honorable man ? 

Will you visit the city during the holidays ? 

3. To Express a Conunand or an Earnest Wish or 
Entreaty. — A person may wish to impose his will on others, 
or to have it known that he has a strong desire that something 
shall or shall not be or be done. To accomplish this object 
he expresses his thought so as to indicate that it is a com- 
mand or a wish. 

Study your lessons. 

Do not abandon me here to my enemies. 

Would that tomorrow were come. 

Sentences, then, may be used to eieclare or tell^ to inquire 
or question, and to coniniand or entreat. 

14. Sentences Defined AVitli Respect to Use. — The 

fact that there are three ways in which sentences are used 
has led grammarians to divide sentences with respect to use 
into three great classes: 

Definition. — A declarative sentence is a sentence used 
to dee la re or tell sonietJiing. 

Definition. — An interrogative sentence is a sentence 
used to ask a question. 

Definition. — An imperative sentence is a sefttence used 
to express a eonunand, a wis/i^ or an earnest entreaty. 

15. Exclamatory Sentences. — The thought expressed 
in sentences may be so mingled with strong feeling and emo- 
tions of every kind as to give the sentences an appearance of 
serving an entirely different use from those described above. 
Thus, a person may make a statement, ask a question, or 
express a com.mand under the influence of such earnestness, 
anger, sorrow, or other emotion that the sentence becomes 
an exelajnation. But utterance accompanied by feeling does 



I 



§ 14 GRAMMAR. 11 

not change a statement, a question, or a command into some- 
thing else, for the emotion affects the sentence only in the 
manner of utterance. The use made of the sentence is still 
the same. 

Some grammarians, however, have divided sentences with 
respect to their use into four kinds — the fourth being the 
exclamatory sentence. Others have given them double 
names ; as, exclamatory-declarative^ exclamatory-interroga- 
tive, and exclamatory-imperative. Others again have taken 
no account of the feeling expressed, and have classified sen- 
tences only as expressing thought. 

This last is clearly the best; for a sentence shows feeling 
not so much by the words composing it as by the manner in 
which they are uttered. But this is something dependent 
entirely on circumstances. A printed sentence becomes 
exclamatory only when the manner and tones of the person 
that reads it betray emotion. Moreover, there is nothing 
constant about the extent or degree in which this exclam- 
atory quality of sentences is indicated by the manner of 
utterance. For example, every variety of excitement may 
be shown in speaking such sentences as the following: 

The Kremlin is on fire, sire. 

Do you imagine that I will submit to such extortion ? 

Leave the city and the country at once. 

But in whatever manner these sentences are uttered, they 
are still respectively a statement., a question., and a command. 

16. Sentences of Mixed Form. — It must not be under- 
stood that every sentence has one of these three forms, for 
such is not the fact. Any two, or all three, of these funda- 
mental forms may be combined in a single sentence. Indeed, 
the variety of sentential structure is endless. 

r ^ ^. ( Tell me, ye winged winds that round my path- 

iM'berative : \ > j & 

[ way roar, 

- , ^ . ( Do ye not know some spot where mortals weep 

Interros^ative : \ .^ 

^ { no more ? 

T . ^. ( Give me a lever long enough, 

Imperative : 1*1 j. 1 

^ i And a prop strong enough, 

Declarative : And, single-handed, I can move the world. 



12 GRAMMAR. § U 

When several complete thoughts are thus compounded it 
often becomes difficult or even impossible to classify the 
resulting sentence. This, however, is a matter of little prac- 
tical importance ; and the fact is that these combined forms 
are not of very frequent occurrence. If the central or leading 
use of such a sentence is to make a statement or declaration, 
to ask a question, or to express a command, the entire sen- 
tence may accordingly be called mixed-declarative, etc., and 
the nature of the several included sentence elements may be 
ignored. Thus, the preceding quotations may be classified as 
mixed-declarative, mixed-ititerrogative, and mixed-impera- 
tive. Or, if it is deemed important, their names may be 
compounded so as to indicate their elements in order. For 
the sentences above, we should have imperative-interrogative 
and imp era t it 'c- dec la rative. 

17. Concerning tlie Punctuation and Capitaliza- 
tion of Sentences. — A sentence, when written, is not 
properly and in full sense a sentence unless it is correctly 
capitalized and punctuated. In other words, capitals and 
marks of punctuation are elements of a written or printed 
sentence, and are just as essential to its completeness as the 
words that compose it. 

The chief uses of capitals and punctuation marks are tw@ 
in number: 

1. To separate sentences into related parts and from 
one another luJien they appear together in succession. 

2. To make the meaning easier to be understood, and to 
avoid ambiguity — double or uncertain meaning. 

The punctuation now used was unknown to the ancients, 
and their letters were not distinguished as small letters and 
capitals. Their writing had no breaks to indicate words. 
About the year 1500, Aldus Manutius, a printer of Venice, 
reduced punctuation and capitalization to a system that has 
since undergone but little change. 

18. Punctuation of Thought and Emotion in Sen- 
tences. — There are two points of view from which sentences 
may be punctuated : 



§ 14 GRAMMAR. 13 

1. With reference only to the thought they express. 

2. With reference to the amount of emotion to be shown 
in their utterance. 

It has already been remarked (Art. 15) that the emotion 
shown in uttering a sentence depends on the tones and 
manner of the speaker or reader. These, with different per- 
sons and under varying circumstances, are never the same. 
It would seem better, therefore, that only the thought should 
be considered in punctuating complete sentences, and that 
the feeling, which is so variable and inconstant, should be 
indicated by the reader as he may deem best. This method 
is in accordance with a growing usage, for punctuation 
intended to denote emotion is diminishing year by year. 

Besides, it is well known that as men gain in culture and 
refinement the emotional coloring gradually becomes less 
noticeable in their speech and writing. Savages, children, 
and uncultured people usually deal much in exclamations 
and act in obedience to impulse and feeling. Their sen- 
tences are interrupted and broken by the impulsive rush of 
the feelings, and their thought, if written, requires to be 
punctuated with many exclamation marks. This same action 
of emotion has led to the condensation of complete sentences 
into single words, and has given us a large number of terms 
that play no part in sentential structure. After the manner 
of emotional speech, they express thought very vaguely and 
indefinitely, and our language would perhaps be better, and, 
certainly, more intelligible, if their number were much 
diminished. 

These words, when they appear in print, usually begin, 
as complete sentences do, with capitals, and are followed 
by what is called an exclamation mai'k [!]. Some exam- 
ples of these words are: Shame! Alas! Hark! Pshaw! 
Hu rraJi ! A va u n t ! 

When the emotion is intended to be particularly strong 
two or more marks may follow ; as, Bravo ! Bravo I ! 
Glorious ! ! ! 

Concerning these words, which grammarians have made 
into a class called interjections, more will be found in another 



14 GRAMMAR. § 14 

place. It is sufficient to say here that the careful speaker 
and writer will use them as rarely as possible. We should 
aim to have our thoughts as clear and definite as possible, 
and to express them as completely, concisely, and exactly as 
language will permit. 

SEXTEXTIAI. ELEMENTS. 



SUBJECT AXD PREDICATE. 

19. A Sentence 3Iust Have T^vo Parts. — We may say 

of nearly even,'thing that can be pictured by the mind that 
it is capable of being or doing something or other ; or we 
may deny that, it has any such capacity of being or doing. 

Thus, of the things denoted by the words tJie earth and 
the bo}\ many things may be affirmed and denied. 
ris round, 
turns on its axis. f is not studious. 

^, ./is the abode of ^, ^ loved his teacher. 

J he earth -, The boy \ 

nian. -^ cannot s^vini. 

is lighted by the j^will not come. 

L sun. 

These are declarative sentences. They are more regular 
and more frequently used than any other form of sentence. 
As the student has already learned, their office or use is to 
state or declare — to affirm or deyiy. By some slight and easy 
changes they may be made interrogative. 
Is 1 r round ? 

Does I , ,, ! turn on its axis ? 

T > the earth - ^, , t ^ o 

Is the abode of man ? 

Is J I lighted by the sun ? 

Is 1 r not studious? 

Bid I , , love his teacher ? 
^ > the boy -, ^ . ^ 
Can -^ not swim ? 

Will J [not come? 

In the imperative sentence, words are used in such way 
as to denote that some person or thing is ordered or entreated 
to do or be, or not to do or be, something or other. 

{You") Be quiet. {You) Do not go. (Ft?//) Give the poor 
fello\v some food. 



§ 14 GRAMMAR. 15 

In each of these sentences, there are two parts the work 
or function of which is entirely different. The first part 
(denoted by Italic) represents something that is capable of 
being or doing something or other ; the second part (denoted 
by heavier type) represents this possible being or action. As 
long as these parts stand alone, they represent only ideas, or 
groups of related ideas that declare, ask, or command nothing 
completely; but when they are properly joined they express 
thoughts — they are sentences. 

The first of these parts, when used in a sentence, is the 
subject of the sentence; the second part is \.h.e predicate. 

30. Definition of Subject and Predicate. — It is 

extremely difficult, if not impossible, to give a perfect defini- 
tion of these two necessary parts of every sentence. The 
difficulty comes from the fact that there are several kinds of 
sentences, and that the functions of the subject and the 
predicate are not the same in all. The definitions usually 
given refer only to the declarative sentence, and while, in 
different grammars, they are nearly all slightly different, they 
are in substance about as follows: 

Definition. — The subject of a declarative sentence is the 
word or words denoting that of which something is affirined 
or denied. 

Definition. — The predicate of a declarative sentence is 
the word or words denoting what is affirmed or denied of 
that which the subject denotes. 

Although it is not easy to find faultless definitions of sub- 
ject and predicate, the student may learn to recognize them 
without difficulty, and that, after all, is the important matter.- 

The subject and the predicate of a sentence are called the 
principal parts. 

31. Exercise.— Mention the class of sentences in which each of 
the following belongs, and the principal parts of each: 

1. Did you ever see the king of the cannibal islands ? 

2. Beware of the wine cup. 

3. Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote "The Guardian Angel." 



16 



GRAMMAR. 



§1^ 



4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
1-L 
Cuba? 

15. 
dollars 



How beautiful and quiet is the night, 

A cat lived in the house that Jack built 

Does it take very long to travel around the world ? 

Strike for the green graves of your sires. 

Did Plutarch call anger a brief madness ? 

Should the spirit of mortal be proud ? 

Many animals pass the winter without food. 

Bright shone the light over fair women and brave men. 

How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank. 

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight 

How many years ago did the Spaniards take possession of 

A single acre of ground may be worth a great man)" thousand 



22. Exercise. — Make ten declarative sentences of the following, 

and then change them into interrogative sentences : 



4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 



Subjects. 
Many birds 
Half of the world 
The cottage by the sea 

Birds of a feather 



Predicates. 
are all swans, 
has never blown, 
stands under a spreading chestnut 

tree, 
grind vgr\' slowly. 



The wind that profits nobody deser\-e the fair. 



Not all truths 
The mills of the gods 
The \-illage smithy 
Only the brave 
Each mans geese 



go south in autumn. 

knows not how the other half lives. 

was struck by lightning. 

will gather together. 

should be made public. 



23. Principal Parts Mcxlified and Unmodified. — 

The subject and the predicate of a sentence may each consist 
of one word or of many words ; but, no matter how many 
words there are in each, there is nearly always one word that 
cannot be stricken from either without destroying the mean- 
ing of the entire sentence. These two parts, that cannot be 
dispensed with, sometimes consist of tico ivords each, or even 
of more than izvo, so closely associated that they must be 
taken together. 

In the interrogative sentence the subject and the predicate 
are still present and e\'ident, but their arrangement is not 
the same as in the declarative sentence It is by this differ- 
ence that a sentence is known to be a question. 



§ 14 GRAMMAR 17 

Thus, take the sentence, 

Early this morning a very beautiful bird with scarlet plumage sang 
sweetly in the old apple tree on the lawn. 

The principal parts in fnll are, 

Subject. — a ver}' beautiful bird with scarlet plumage. 

Predicate. — sang early this morning in the old apple tree 
on the lawn. 

No^v, when these two parts are reduced to the sim.plest 
possible forms — when all the modifiers of each are omitted — 
the sentence will stand, 

Bird sang. 

Here we have the naked, or iDiuiodified subject joined to 
the naked, or iDiniodified predicate. When the words asso- 
ciated with each are allowed to remain, we have the modified 
subject and the modified predicate. 

24:. Exercise. — In each of the following sentences the naked 
subject is printed in Italic and the tiaked predicate in heavy tj-pe. 
Mention the modifiers of subject and predicate in each sentence. 

1. Many dark clouds of threatening appearance rapidly gatlier 
in dense masses along the mountain. 

2. AVill not the birds that delighted us return with the spring- 
time ? 

3. What means this heaviness that hangs upon me ? 

4. Grim-visaged n'ar liatll smootlied his wrinkled front. 

5. How does the water come down at Lodore ? 

6. JTater its living strength first sliows, 
When obstacles its course oppose. 

7. Nothing except a battle lost can be half so melancholy as a 
battle won. 

8. In the deep shadow of the porch, a slender bindweed climbs 
like an airy acrobat. 

9. The doorstep to the temple of wisdom is a knowledge of our 
own ignorance. 

10. Man's inhumanity to man makes countless thousands mourn. 

11. The natural /c-ar of children is by fearsome tales inci*eased. 

12. He that fears not death cares nothing for danger. 

25. Exercise. — Mention the naked Q.n^ the niodi^ed subject and 
predicate of each of the following sentences : 

1. In this place ran Cassius' dagger through. 

2. A lovelier maiden never walked the earth. 

3. The rattling crags among leaps the live thunder. 



18 GRAMMAR. § U 

4. Did not the gentle rain refresh the thirsty flowers ? 

5. The evil that men do lives after them. 

6. Why did Henry Clay fail to become President ? 

7. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

8. To become a scholar is his highest ambition. 

9. 'Mid pleasure and dissipation do not waste your life. 
10. Thus conscience doth make cowards of us all. 

It will be observed that, when each of the foregoing sen- 
tences is reduced to its simplest form, the central or funda- 
mental sense of the sentence is expressed by the naked 
subject and the naked predicate. Thus, in Art. 24, the 
thotights reduce to the following: 

Clouds gather. AVill birds return? Heaviness means. 
War hatli smootlied. Does water come ? Etc. 

One of these parts names something that is capable of 
being or doing something; the other expresses, in the brief- 
est way, what in each case is or is done. Grammarians call 
each of these two indispensable parts of a sentence by differ- 
ent names. Apart from all other words of the sentence, 
they are the naked, or unmodified, or grammatical subject 
or predicate, as the case may be. Taken with the other 
words of the sentence, they are the entire, or logical, or 
modified subject or predicate. 

In this work, the words subject and predicate will mean the 
naked, or unmodified subject and predicate; vtodified will 
be prefixed to the words w^hen the entire subject or predicate 
is meant. 

2G. Use or Function of Modifiers. — The words modify^ 
modifier, and modification are so much used in grammar 
that the student should imderstand their exact meaning. 
These terms all contain the Latin word modus, "a measure." 
We may conclude, then, that they all have in them some 
idea of measuring, as grain is measured. 

When we hear a class name like animal, there comes to us 
at once a mental picture or idea of a vast unmeasured class. 
It includes every creature, dead or living, or yet to live. 
Now join to the name a measuring word — a modifier — such 
&.S four-footed. Consider what has happened to our idea or 



§14 



GRAMMAR. 



19 



mental picture. An immense number of animals are shut 
out, and our class is much smaller and more defmite. We 
have left the unmeasured, and are moving towards an exact 
meaning. Let us add another modifier, say herbivorous. 
Again our class is reduced. All animals that eat flesh are 
shut out from the class oi four-footed herbivorous animals. 
And so, each added modifier reduces the measure of the 
class, and we may continue thus until the animal we mean 
is conceived or pictured as separated from every other in 
the great class of animals. 

Definition. — A modifier is any word or expression used 
with another zuord to narrow its application and to denote its 
meaning more exactly — to reduce or lessen the measure or 
extent in which its sense is to be taken. 

Modifiers, Modified Word. Modifiers. 



Red 

Large red 
Large, red., sweet 
Very large, red, sweet 



apples 



for cooking. 

from a tree i?i the orchard. 

bought in the market. 

that you gave 7ne yesterday. 



Other words besides class names may take modifiers. 
Thus, with glad or sour we may use very., extremely^ 
moderately^ always, too, never, and many others. 

So, also, a person may swim well, fast, slowly, in the 
ocean, up stream, for life, when he goes to the seashore., if 
the day is pleasant, etc. 

This subject will be more fully treated when we come to 
consider those parts of speech the function of which is to 
modify the meaning of other elements. 



CLASSES OF WORDS. 

27. Formation of Word Classes. — As has already 
been stated (Art. 8), the words in our language have been 
divided into eight classes called parts of speech. In what 
class a word belongs depends entirely on the use that is 
made of it in a sentence. No one can classify a word until 
its use or function in some sentence structure is determined ; 



20 GRAMMAR. § U 

for, since a word may be differently used in different sen- 
tences, it may belong now to one part of speech and again 
to another. Hence, in order to decide in what class a word 
belongs, the first question to ask is, what work does it do in 
the sentence where it is used ? 



THE NOUX. 

28. A very large part of our words are employed to 
name things that are known by means of our senses, such as 
apple, house, tree, sky, river. Such 7iaines are nouns, for 
the two words mean exactly the same, except that the one is 
used in the language of every-day life, while the other is a 
tecJinical 'or scientific term employed in grammar. Such 
words as those given above, like apple and sky, call up in the 
mind ideas of pictures of real things — things with color, size, 
taste, weight, and other sensible qualities. But there are 
many names that denote things without any such qualities; 
and we can talk and think of these just as if they were real 
things. Such words as distance, loneliness, hatred, emptiness^ 
liberty, vice, and wisdom are of this kind. While the mental 
pictures produced by these words are not so distinct or so 
easily formed as the ideas of objects having sensible quali- 
ties, such words can be used in sentences in precisely the 
same way as nouns denoting sensible things. We can think 
oi hatred ov liberty being or doing something or other, just 
as we can of boy, or bird, or star. 



Se/Jis/iness is a vice. 
Pati'ioiism seems a duty. 
I)idustry begets prosperity. 



The boy is a driumner. 
The sky resembles a dome. 
The/arnie?' raises wheat. 



Most nouns consist of but one word, but when two or more 
words are taken together to name something about which we 
affirm or deny, the combination is a noun. 

To lii'e is to think. Writitig a long letter to his employers con- 
sumed an hour of his time. " This is the etid of life ; 1 am content ^^ 
was the last thing he said. 

Dettn it ion. — A noun is a?iy word or expression used as 
the na))ie of something. 



§ 14 GRAMMAR. 21 

The noun is employed in several ways in sentences, but 
its most common and important use is as subject^ and any 
noun whatever may be used in this relation. If the noun 
were the only word capable of performing this work, it would 
be possible to give a very much better definition of this part 
of speech than that above. But, as will hereafter appear, 
there is another part of speech, the pronoun^ that is used in 
sentences to perform very nearly the same functions as the 
noun. 

^9. Exercise. — Mention the nouns and their modifiers in each of 
the following: 

1. Great thoughts, like great deeds, need no trumpet. 

2. The truth, the real life and sunshine, lay far out in regions 
beyond the horizon. 

3. Tell me not, in mournful numbers, life is but an empty dream. 

4. That divine unrest, that old stinging trouble of humanity, that 
makes all high achievement and all miserable failure, inspired and 
supported these barbarians on their perilous march. 

5. " They are worlds like ours," said the young man; " and some 
of the least sparkles that you see are not only worlds, but whole clus- 
ters of worlds turning about one another in the midst of space. In 
them is perhaps the answer to all our difficulties or the cure of all our 
sufferings; and yet we can never reach them; not all the skill and 
craft of men can fit out a ship for the nearest of these our neighbors, 
nor would the life of the most aged suffice for such a journe3^" 

6. "I am a natural law," the visitor replied, " and people call me 
Death. I am a physician ; the best that ever was, for I cure both mind 
and body with the same prescription. I take away all pain and forgive 
all sins, and where my patients have gone w^rong in life, I smooth out 
all complications and set them free again upon their feet." 



THE PROXOUI^. 

30. Pronouns make up a small class of short but very 
useful words. They do not, like nouns, name things, but 
they refer to them in such a way as to make plain what is 
meant. They are substitutes for nouns, for the word//'<:7- 
noiin means for or instead of a noun. Without them, our 
language would be very awkward; indeed, it is not easy to 
see how we could carry on an ordinary conversation. x\ 



22 GRAMMAR. § 14 

person speaking- does not need to mention his own name or 
even to know that of the hearer. He uses /, zuc, us^ my^ me^ 
etc. when he means himself and those for whom he speaks; 
and Jie^ she, it, Jiim, her, they, etc. when he refers to other 
persons or things. 

It has been stated that the pronoun can do the same work 
in a sentence that a noun can do; but, in one respect at 
least, the pronoun is by far the more useful word. The word 
horse can be applied to only one class of animals, but the 
pronoun he can stand for the names of many kinds of ani- 
mals. The little word it can be a substitute for the name 
of almost any object that can be mentioned. The pronoun, 
therefore, is a kind of name of very wide application, or a 
general substitute for names; it enables us to talk of any- 
thing whatever without naming it more than once. 

Definition. — A pronoun is a zvord used to denote persons 
or things luithoiit naming tJiejn. 

31. Exercise. — Point out the pronouns and tell to what each 
refers in the following sentences: 

1. "I believe that the earth is round," he said to them in his 
earnest way, " and that it is turning on its axis while we are talking 
about it." 

2. Much more affected than I cared to show, I suffered myself to 
be persuaded, and at last shook hands with him and made it up. 

3. There it lies as flat as my hand and as innocent as a child; but 
they say that when the wind blows it gets up into water mountains 
bigger than any of ours, and it swallows down great ships bigger than 
our mill, and makes such a roaring that you can hear it miles away 
upon the land. 

4. They told me that they saw her sitting in a boat with its head 
pointed towards the falls, and that as she drifted past him watching 
her from the cliffs, she waved her hand to him and smiled. 

5. He that wrestles with us strengthens our nerves and sharpens 
our skill. 



THE at:rb. 

32. In every language, by far the most important class 
of words is the verb ; for, without a verb, no thought can 
be expressed. Every sentence must contain a verb. By 



§ U GRAMMAR. 23 

using the noun, we name things concerning which we may 
affirm or deny something ; but to express such affirmation or 
denial in the form of a sentence — and this is the only form 
in which a thought can be written or spoken — a verb must 
be used. 

Thus, stars, birds, John, are names, but they tell us 
nothing — they are the signs of ideas, not of thoughts. But 
when suitable asserting words are joined to them, we have 
thoughts — sentences. 

Stars shine. Birds liave been singing. John will not 
come. 

Such words as shine, have been singing, zuill come, are 
verbs. So important in the sentence is the office of the verb 
that its name means the word — that is, of all words, the verb 
is of greatest consequence. 

Grammarians say that the verb predicates being or action 
of that which the subject names. This word comes from a 
Latin verb meaning "to tell" or "speak out" in public. 
The fact is that there is much need for a word that has all 
of the following meanings: to assert, to deny, to question, to 
command, to zvisJi, to entreat; for the verb is the chief word 
in sentences by which all these forms of thought are ex- 
pressed. But, of course, the need cannot be met, for there 
is no such word. The nearest approach to it is, perhaps, 
the word predicate; and if the student will remember what 
the grammarians would like to have this word mean, he 
will know what the functions of the verb are. 

Definition.— .4 verb is a word nsed to predicate being or 
action of that wJiicJi is denoted by a subject. 

33, Exercise. — Construct sentences containing the following used 
as verbs : 

1. Send, comes, surprise, conceal, refrain, wander, wonder. 

2. Believed, saw, dela^^ed, lingered, espied, hurried, stayed. 

3. Will repay, has depended, were relieved, can promise, have gone. 

4. Has been tried, will be rescued, should have obeyed, may have 
sailed. 

5. Should have been presented, might have been expected, can be 
seen, will have been finished, may be trusted. 



24 GRAMMAR. § 14 

34, Exercise. — Point out the \erbs in the following quotation-. 

"Our brains are seventy-year clocks. The Angel of Life winds 
them up once for all, then closes the case, and gives the key into the 
hand of the Angel of the Resurrection. 

"Tick-tack! tick-tack! go the wheels of thought; our will cannot 
stop them; they cannot stop themselves; sleep cannot still them; 
madness only makes them go faster ; death alone can break into the 
case, and, seizing the ever-swinging pendulum which we call the heart, 
can silence at last the clicking of the terrible escapement we have 
carried so long beneath our wrinkled foreheads. 

"If we could only get at them, as we lie on our pillows and count 
the dead beats of thought after thought and image after image jarring 
through the overtired organ ! Will nobody block- those wheels, 
uncouple that pinion, cut the string that holds those weights, blow up 
the infernal machine with gunpowder ?" — Oliver Wendell Holmes. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

35. The objects denoted by class names or nouns, as 
tree, ivind, man, house, are distinguished from one another 
by their qualities of color, size, form, etc. In order that 
persons with whom we converse may know which particular 
individual or group of individuals we mean, modifiers must 
be joined to the class name. We notice the quality that is 
most prominent in the thing we wish to speak of, and use a 
modifier to mark that quality. 

The modifiers in most common use are 
a or an, and the. 

The first, a or an, indicates that any one of a class of 
objects is meant. 

Thus, a ma?i, or an apple, means one man or one apple of 
the great classes denoted by maji and apple. 

The modifier the, when joined to a noun, shows that some 
particular thing or group of things is intended. Thus, the 
rose, the ships, mean a particular rose, a eertain group of 
ships. 

With or without these modifiers, others denoting size, 
7iumher, material, or other sensible qualities are used with 
nouns; as, a larjire house, several visitors, the three 
longest rivers, a rich black silk dress. 



§ 14 GRAMMAR. 25 

It has already been explained how each added modifier 
narrows or restricts the number of objects denoted by the 
word that is modified, and at the same time indicates more 
exactly what the thing intended is like. Thus, the number 
of objects denoted by the following decreases in order, but 
what they are like becomes more exact and definite : men; 
tall men; tall, dark men; tall, dark, handsome men; 
two tall, dark, handsome men^ etc. 

Words used in this way to modify the meaning of nouns 
are adjectives. This word means ' ' thrown to " or " near " ; 
it implies that the modifier is joined directly to the modified 
word; this is generally, but not always, the case. Thus, 

The boy was, as everyone knew, intelligent and ohedient. 
Henry returned from his long walk in the country, rosy and happy. 

Adjectives, when used to modify the meaning of pronouns^ 
nearly always follow them ; as, 

He was for many years sick and helpless. Yoic are careless. 

Definition. — An adjective is a word used to modify the 
meaning of a noun or a pronoun. 

It should be added that adjectives may consist of two or 
more words ; as, a s^veet-scented flower^ rosy-fingered 
mornings a house ^vith seven gahles, the story that yon 
heard yesterday^ a never-to-be-forgotten event. 

In fact, the important question for the student of grammar 
to determine with respect to words separately and in combi- 
nation is. What work do they perform in this sentence ; what 
are their functions here ? If they modify nouns or pronouns, 
they are adjectives, whatever they may be when otherwise 
used; if they name things, they are nouns; if they stand for, 
and refer to, names, they slXQ pronouns; and so on. It is the 
use made of a word that determines the class in which it 
belongs. 

36. Exercise. — 1. Write ten sentences containing adjectives 
that precede the words they modify. 

2. Write ten sentences that contain adjectives following the words 
they modify. 

3. Write ten sentences having adjectives both before and after the 
words they modify. 



20 GRAMMAR. § U 

4. Construct sentences containing adjective modifiers beginning 
with each of the following words: to, for, of, wit /t, from, in, by, about, 
after, before, oi'er, upon, on, along. For example, •• A stroll along 
the beaeh gave us much enjoNTnent" 

5. Construct sentences containing modifiers in which the foUowing 
words are used as verbs: wrote, was built, sailed, was written, had 
been done, has fallen, were singing, was crossing, has spoken, is^ has 
been, was trusted. For example, 

Liips we have kissed, ye are faded and cold. 
Hands we have pressed, ye are covered with mold. 



/ S];>eak 



THE ad^i:rb. 

3 7 . The principal use of this part of speech is to do for 
the verb just what the adjective does for the noun — modify 
its vitatiing. With only a few exceptions, the verb, like the 
noun, denotes classes — not of objects, however, but of actions. 
For example, the action expressed by speak may be per- 
formed in so many different jnanuers. at such a variety of 
times and places, and under such a multitude of other con- 
ditions and circumstances, that it may denote a class of 
predicated action as extensive as that named by the noun 
speech. This will be clear from the illustration that follows: 

clearly, kindly, distinctly, rapidly, slowly. 

now, soon, often, early, never, frequently. 

here, there, yonder, everywhere, now Jure. 
j with clearness, by permission, to tlu students. 
I to convince, to warn of danger, to be understood. 
I when I am spoken to, that my opinion may be known. 

It will be noticed that adverbs as well as adjectives may 
consist of several words, and that they must be recognized 
by the office they fill in the sentence. 

The word adverb impHes that this part of speech is joined 
directly to the verb {ad, "to"). But while this is often the 
case, the adverb, like the adjective, may often be widely 
separated from the verb it modifies. 

Solemnly, mournfully, dealing its dole. 
The curfew bell is beginning to toll. 

Put it is not the meaning of verbs alone that adverbs 
modify ; they are frequently used to modify the meaning of 



§ 14 GRAMMAR. 27 

adjectives as well as that of other adverbs. We have seen 
that verbs, like nouns, are class words. The same is true of 
most adjectives and adverbs. Thus, when we say, "The 
day is fine,'' there are many degrees of the quality expressed 
by the adjective fine, many conditions under which it may 
exist, and we may wish to indicate some of these differences. 

r very, extreinety, not, decidedly, quite, exceedingly. 

The day is fine \ forfishiiig, overhead, in this region, on the ocean. 

I since the rain, for a spring day, when the sun shines. 

Similarly, in the sentence, Time flies rapidly, the adverb 
denotes many degrees of rapid motion, such as may be indi- 
cated by how, very, quite, somezuhat, too, 7nore, less, etc. 

Definition. — An adverb is a word used to modify the 
meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

38. Exercise. — 1. Form sentences in which shall occur the fol- 
lowing words used as adverbs: rightly, gladly, kindly, openly , fre- 
quently, occasionally, sweetly, gleefully, gracefully, beautifully, 
neatly. 

2. Use in sentences the following words as adverbs: soon, often, 
when, where, how, why, however, whence, whether, so, as, very, quite, 
almost. 

3. Use the following as adverbs: today, tomorrow, yesterday, for- 
ever, one by one, in groups, side by side, back and forth, tip and dow?i, 
now and then, by and by, as soon as possible. 

4. Construct five sentences in which adverbs modify adjectives, and 
five in which adverbs modify adverbs. 

5. Make sentences using each of the following as the first element 
in adverbial modifiers: by, with, over, amidst, across, before, behitid, 
concerning, against, according to, in order to, becaicse of, with 
regard to. 



THE PREPOSITION. 

39. It has already been explained that words may stand 
together without bearing to one another any relation in 
meaning — without helping one another to become useful in 
expressing thought. The words in a list for spelling are of 
this kind; they are without connection or relation in meaning. 

But words may be so arranged that, if their meanings are 



28 



GRAMMAR. 



§1^ 



suited to one another, they stem to belong together. They 
form what may be called a compound or modified idea, and 
without rearrangement may enter a sentence as one of its 
elements. 

This is the case when suitable Dwdificrs are joined to 
jwuns^ adjectives, verbs, or adverbs ; as, good boy, very sorry, 
quite soon. 

Again, ideas may seem to be so widely separated — so unlike 
— that nothing could ever bring into relation the words deno- 
ting these ideas. Yet they may often be joined by means of 
a kind of iK.'ord bridge between them. Examples of this are 
shown below. 



by 

above 
imcler 

A palace \ in 

over 



near 
across 



about 

concerning 

to 

► the sea. IVrite \ against i- the Indians. 

from 
for 
i among 



These ivord bridges are called prepositions. They are so 
named because they are nearly 2\v,'^.\^ placed before the noun 
or pronoun that they connect with some preceding word. 
The work done in sentences by prepositions is twofold: 
(1) they coiinect ivords; (.2) they bring ivords into relation. 

The preposition with the noun or pronoun that follows it, 
forms a prepositional phrase. Phrases of this kind are used as 
modifiers, just as if they were adjectives and adverbs con- 
sisting of only one word. 

Thus, in the expressions a silk dress and a dress of silk, 
silk and of silk are each adjective modifiers of the noun dress. 
Again, in Examine with care and Examine carefully, the 
verb is modified in meaning both by carefully and by the 
phrase ivith care. The functions of these two modifiers are 
exactly similar. 

The number of prepositions is considerably less than one 
hundred, but they form a very useful class of words. Indeed, 
it is not easy to see how we should get along without them, 



i 



§ 14 GRAMMAR. 29 

for some of the shortest of them, such as, to, foj% in, zuith^ 
from, by, at, on, of, we use in nearly every sentence. 

Definition. — A preposition is a word used to connect 
words and bring them into relation. 

Just as nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs sometimes 
consist of two or more words used as one, so also vi\2iY prep- 
ositions. The following" are called phrase prepositions: The 
Gospel according: to St. Mark ; done in spite of opposition ; 
respected in proportion to his wealtJi ; acted ^vith respect 
to his interests. 

40, Exercise. ^ — 1. By suitable prepositions establish a relation- 
ship in meaning between the following : rode the forest, sailed 

the ocea?i, spoke him, died sunrise, acted the enemy, lived 

the sea. 

2. Find prepositional phrase modifiers of the following words used 
as adjectives : hopeful, polite, disobedietit, confident, courageous, 
revengeful, pleased, resting, covered, sad. 

3. Construct ten sentences in each of which appear two nouns, con- 
nected by prepositions. 

4. Construct sentences containing the following used correctly as 
prepositions: /><?;;«, ^(f/fS'r^, against, below, tinder, around, opposite, 
toward, within, without. 

5. Pick out the prepositional phrases in the following, and tell what 
each modifies: 

" Tears, idle tears, I know not what they mean, 
Tears from the depth of some divine despair 
Rise in the heart, and gather to the eyes, 
In looking on the happy Autumn fields, 
And thinking of the days that are no more. 

•* Fre;sh as the first beam glittering on a sail 
That brings our friends up from the under world, 
Sad as the last which reddens over one 
That sinks with all we love below the verge ; 
So sad, so fresh, the days that are no more. 

•• Dear as remembered kisses after death, 
And sweet as those by hopeless fancy feigned 
On lips that are for others ; deep as love, 
Deep as first love, and wild with all regret, 
O Death in Life, the davs that are no more."— Tennyson 



;jU GRAMMAR. g 14 

TII K ( < ) N .1 V iNCTION. 

41. As the word implies, a eonjunetion is, like the prepo- 
sition, a word used for joining or connecting- other sentential 
elements. There are, however, some differences that are 
easily seen between these two classes of words. Some of 
these are as follows: 

1. Conjii)ictions sometimes connect sentences, prepositions 
never. 

Mary went to the picnic, but Kate remained at home. 

Here the two sentences are joined by the conjtmction but; 
the preposition to connects the words 2vent and picnic, and 
at connects remained and Jiovie. 

2. Conjunctions connect words bclongijig to the same part 
of speech^ or words used in the same way; prepositions usually 
connect different parts of speech, and words used differently. 

Kind and good. Of the people or by the people. James as well 
as John. 

3. Conjunctions do not, and prepositions ahvays do, take 
after them a noun or pronoun to form phrases that modify 
other words. 

The conjunction, in connecting, does indeed establish some 
kind of relation between the elements connected, yet this is 
not its most important work in sentences. With the prepo- 
sition, the chief use is to denote relation; with the conjunction, 
its joini/ig or ujiitijig function is the prominent fact. 

The conjunction and'is used perhaps more than all other 
conjimctions taken together. It may be regarded as th.Q plus 
sign of language; for, when placed between two words or 
phrases or sentences, it denotes that they are to be thought 
of as imited — their sum of 'ineaning is to be taken. Other 
conjunctions that are much used are, if, unless, though, for 
(when it is used to introduce a reason), because, therefore, 
however, then, hence, except, provided, lest, etc. 

Some conjunctions go in pairs, as, both — and, neitJier — nor, 
cither — or, or — or, nor — }ior, not only — but also. 

Conjunctions used in pairs are called correlative conjunc- 
tions. 



§ U GRAMMAR. 31 

Definition. — A eoiijiinctloii is a word used 1o connect 
sentences^ or seiitential elements that are used alike, 

43. Exercise. — 1. By using five different conjunctions, form five 
sentences of the following: 

He trusted in me 1 had no confidence in him. 

2. Separate each of the following sentences into three others that 
shall together be equivalent to the separated sentence: 

{a) Cherries, plums, and pears succeed well in the United States. 
{b) The boy can read, write, and cipher very well indeed. 
{c) The drover purchased sheep, calves, and oxen from the farmers. 
{d) The President spoke of a government of the people, by the 
people, for the people. 

3. Construct sentences in which shall occur the following words 
used as conjunctions: because, /lence, or, notwithsiandiiig, ujiless, 
except, although, if, yet, whereas. 

4. By using conjunctions, unite the following groups of sentences 
into one sentence for each group : 

j Rome was not built in a day. 
^ I A fortune is not made in a year. 

i The Spanish fleet entered the harbor of Santiago. 
{b) X The Spanish fleet tried to escape to ithe ocean. 

( The Spanish fleet was destroyed by the blockading vessels. 

i The great prizes of life are won by ability. 
(^) X The great prizes of life are not won by trickery. 

( The great prizes of life are not won by indolence. 



I 



THE INTEIMECTION. 

43, In addition to the seven classes of words already 
described, there is another class commonly reckoned by gram- 
marians as forming the eigJith part of speech. Some examples 
are the following: oJi! alas ! hark! hal While it is conve- 
nient, and perhaps better, that words of this kind should be 
regarded as forming another part of speech, it should be 
remembered that they have no place in sentential struc- 
ture. They are throivn among {inter, "among," andyrr///.s', 
"thrown") sentences to indicate /<^t//;/^'' only, not thonght. 
In language, they are as much out of grammatical relation 
as the figures that are used in numbering chapters and para- 
graphs. Some authorities say that interjections represent 



:i-Z GRAMMAR. § U 

entire sentences condensed into sin^de words. Ky this they 
mean tliat /x//r?7L' / for example, is a kind of eqnivalent for 
117/(7/ vou saj' Is absurd, and liist ! for Be quiet and listen; 
for I hear a strange noise, or the hke. Of course, no one 
can say with any certainty what thought is implied by an 
exclamation that is intended to express nothing more than 
emotion of some kind. A sigh or a groan is, in a sense, an 
interjection, and while these generally convey a Jiint of the 
thought appropriiite to them, they do not express thought in 
the precise way required in the sentences of which grammar 
takes account. "We often hear imitations of the noises made 
when we cough or sneeze or laugh or weep, and these sounds 
may be represented in print; and the cries of certain animals 
are indicated by such words as mew! bow-wow! cluck ! baa! 
wJiippoorwill ! These are perhaps to be classed as inter- 
jections, if, indeed, they are words, but it seems absurd to 
regard them 3.^ parts of speech. The fact that they resemble 
words is the only reason that could possibly be given for 
noticing them in grammar. In expressing thought, we do 
not need such words as oh! alas! ugJi! Jia! fie ! fudge! he^n! 
heigh-ho! hey! 

Definition. — An interjection is a word that has 7io 
relation to other words in a sentence, and is used to express 
feeling or emotion. 

PARTS OF SPEECH GROUPED. 

44. The parts of speech, considered with respect to the 
importance of the work each does in expressing thought, may 
be placed in two groups: 

1. Tlie Indispensable Parts of Speech. — These are the 

verb and the noun, or its substitute, the pronoun. With 
the verb and the noun or the pronouji, a complete sentence 
may be formed; but these are the only parts of speech with 
which this can be done. 

2. The Auxiliary or Helping Parts of Speech. — These 

include the five remaining classes of words; 

(a) The Modifiers.— The adjective and thf- adverb. 



§ 14 



GRAMMAR. 



33 



{b) The Connectives. — The preposition and the conjunc- 
tion. 

(c) The htterjcction. — These words serve to indicate the 
feelmg intended to be associated with expressed thought. 

It will hereafter appear that words are sometimes used in 
such way as to make it difficult to decide in what class they 
belong; also that some words do double duty in the sentence. 
Thus there are many words that modify in the manner of 
adjectives, and at the same time have the function of pro- 
nouns; others again modify as adverbs and connect as con- 
junctions. But these cases will be considered in the proper 
places. 



SYl^OPSIS. 



Indispensable 



r 1. Noun — Names something. 
\ 2. Pronoun — Refers to names. 
I 3. Verb — Expresses what is or is done. 



II 

Auxiliary 



1. Modifiers 



[a) Adjective — Modifies 
meaning of nouns and 
pronouns. 

ip) Adverbs — Mo difies 
meaning of verbs, ad- 
jectives, and adverbs. 

( {a) Preposition — Brings 
words into relation 
with noun or pronoun. 

{b) Co 71 junction — Con- 
nects similar elements. 

3. Interjection — Colors thought with fee ling 



2. Connectives 



i 



I 



GRAMMAR, 

(PART 2.) 



FUXCTIOnS^S OF SEISTTEKTIAL ELEME:NTS, 



WORD EliEMEKTS. 



THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN. 

1 , Functions of Nouns and Pronouns. — So far as has 

yet been considered, the only work done in sentences by 
nouns and pronouns is to stand in the relation of subject. 

Nouns as subjects. — The moon lights the earth. William was 
hurt. 

Pronotms as subjects. — I saw the President. "Wlio inquired for me? 

But besides filling" the office of subject, nomisand pronouns 
have other uses in sentences. Their most important func- 
tions are as follows : 

1. As Absolute, or Independent. — In grammar, these 
two words, absolute and iiidependeiit^ are employed with the 
same meaning. We have seen that the interjection is used 
apart from, and independent of, the sentence near which it 
occurs. In a similar way, a noun or pronoun used independ- 
ently may be omitted without destroying the sentence. 
There are several varieties of the absolute use of nouns and 
pronouns : 

{a) With a verbal to express a cause or an iiidcpoulcut 
fact. (A verbal is a word derived from a verb^ but not used 

§15 

For notice of the copyright, see paj^t" iinmodiately lollowinK llic titlr i^a.^e. 



2 GRAMMAK. § 15 

with predicating force, or in the form to make assertions; as, 
iovifig^ being, etc.) 

The earth being round, men can sail around it. I being sick, they 
sent my brother. The example having been solved, the teacher 
read another to the class. 

In these sentences, cartJi, /, and example are independent 
or absolute, because the uhrases in which they are found are 
not required, for the sentences are complete without them. 

ij?) In flirt et address. 

Go home, my child. Come here, you. Friends, Romans, country- 
men, hear me for my cause. 

{e) By pleonasm. 

The l>oy, O where was he ? Shakespeare ; no greater poet ever 
lived, y/^that hath, to him shall be given. The North and the South, 
thou hast created them. 

This construction is used for the sake of emphasis. The 
word pleonasm is derived from the Greek word pleon, mean- 
ing "more." The notion is that more words are used than 
are needed. 

(d) By mere exclamation. 

Poor beast .' He knows nothing of the laws of supply and demand. 
Liberty f How many of earth's oppressed have yearned for liberty. 

2. As Predicate Complement. — A complement is some- 
thing added to complete or fill out something else. In nearly 
ever\' sentence the predicate has with it a noun or pronoun 
used to complete its meaning. A noun or pronoun so 
employed is called the predicate complement. There are two 
varieties of this construction : 

{a) l^hQ predicate noun ov pronoun, after such verbs as be 
[am, is, are, was, etc.], seem, appear, become, etc. 

He 7uas a scholar. John became an engineer. The earth is a 
planet. It icas she. 

A predicate noun may be known by the fact that // always 
denotes the same person or thing as the subject. Thus, in the 
sentences above, he and scholar represent each the same per- 
son. The same is true of John and engineer, of earth and 
planet, and of /'/ and she. 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 3 

{b) The object noun or pronoun— usmqIIy called the object 
of the verb. 

The boy ate his dinner. A ball struck him. We saw them on the 
street. He whom they loved has gone away. 

3. As the Object of a Preposition. — 

They rowed across the lake. We went with them to the 
country. 

A noun or pronoun in this construction is said to be the 
object of the preposition. 

4. In Explanation of the Meaning of Another iRoun 
or Pronoun. — 

Socrates the pliilosopher drank poison. Did you see him, the 
traitor and renegade ? 

A noun thus used to explain the meaning of another noun 
or pronoun is said to be in apposition with the word 
explained. This is because it is placed near the word it 
explains, for apposition means "placed near." A word in 
apposition to another always denotes the same person or 
thing as the word that is explained. Thus, Socrates and 
philosopher are two names of the same person. 

5. As a Modifier Denoting Possession or Origin. — 

The hoy's shoes, our horses, the \>^orld's productions, the 
sun's heat. 

The first two modifying- words bofs and our denote posses- 
sion ; the last two indicate the source or origin of the things 
denoted by productions and Jieat. Unlike the function of 
words in apposition^ a possessive modifier denotes something 
different from the meaning of the word that is modified. 

6. As the Equivalent of an Adverbial Plirase. — 

He is six feet tall = He is tall to or by six feet. The meat 
weighed five pounds = The meat weighed to the extent of five 
pounds. 

Here th-e adjective tall is modified by feet used as an 
adverb ; and the verb zveighed is modified in a similar manner 
hy pounds, used as the equivalent-^ an adverbial phrase. 

The foregoing are all the uses served in sentences by 



4 GRAMMAR. §15 

nouns and pronouns, and it is important that the student 
should learn to recognize them quickly and with certainty. 

2. Exercise. — Tell in which of the foregoing ways each noun or 
pronoun printed in Italic in the following sentences is used: 

1. She was the/t'/ of her class in school. 

2. Yc crags and. peaks, /'m with _>'<?// once again. / hold to j't?// the 
hands that once / held to show I hey still are free. 

3. ' T'is sweet to hear the watch-dog s honest bark 

Bay deep-mouthed li'elcome as we draw near home; 
' Tis sweet to know there is an eye will mark 
Oi/r coming, and look brighter when lue come. 

4. Of earthly goods, the best is a good luife; a bad, the bitterest 
curse of human life, 

5. Loud wind, strong wind, sweeping o'er the mountains, pour 
forth from aXvy fountains, drafts of life for me. 

6. Experience and reason show that affairs confided to many per- 
sons rarely succeed. 

7. They carried us five tniles, and for the service we paid fifty 
shillings. 

S. Time, you thief, who love to get sweets into your list, put that 
in. 

9. Wealth: that is a burden carried by human donkeys and sup- 
posed to be of great value 

10. Beware of desperate steps; the darkest day. 
Live till tomorrow, will have passed away. 



THE AI>.rECTrVT: AXD THE ADVERB. 

3. The adjective, as we have seen, is a word used with a 
noun or pronoun to measure, restrict, or tiarroiu its applica- 
tion. In doing this work, the adjective as a modifier shows 
the following uses : 

1. The Adjective May Be Joined Directly to tlie 
Modified AVoitl.— 

Good weather: few persons: that house: seven wtv/. 
We saw him, busy and contented. A lady, beautiful and 
reflne<l, conducted our party. 

Adjectives used as in the last two sentences are said to' be 
used appositivcly, because they explain very much as a noiui 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 5 

in apposition explains, and their position is much the same 
as that of nouns used appositively. 

When an adjective is placed directly before the noun it is 
used adjunctively ; as, good weatJier. 

2. The Adjective May Be Used as a Complement of 
the Predicate. — 

The merchant was honest, shrewd, and successful. 
Great is Diana of the Ephesians. / am sure that you are 
wrong. 

An adjective used thus is called the predicate adjective^ or 
the attribute. It is a construction exactly similar to that 
with the predicate noun or the predicate pronoun. This is 
the predicative^ or attributive use of the adjective. 

3. The Adjective May Be Used Alone as a Koun.^ 

The good die young. The gay will laugh when thou art gone. 
The heautiful is not always the hest, neither is the ugly or 
deformed the >vorst. 

4. The usual function of the adverb is to modify or 
restrict the meaning of the following elements : 

{a) Verbs. — Walk slowly. Softly and tremblingly 
he spoke her name. 

{b) Adjectives. — I have been very sick. He exhibited 
to us his extremely beautiful captive. 

Even when an adjective is used as a noun, it may be mod- 
ified by an adverb. 

Among the people of this world, there is not so much difference as is 
generally supposed between the exceedingly good and the 
extremely bad. 

Adjectives used as in the last sentence may take adjectival 
modifiers. 

The philosophers tell us that exceeding good is often followed by 
some extreme bad. 

{c) Other Adverbs. — They came very early ^ and stayed 
so long., that quite gladly we saw them depart. 

The forms and the usual functions of the other word ele- 
ments of sentences have already been explained sufficiently 
for present purposes, 



GRAMMAR. § 15 



DErrsmox of a phrase. 

5. We very often find in sentences groups consisting- of 
two or more words that seem to belong together, ven* much 
as if they were parts of a compound word. They im^ite sev- 
eral closely related ideas into a compoimd idea, and together 
they do the duty of a single word in the sentences where 
they occur. This duty or function is to vwdify like an 
adjective or an adverb, or to name some thing or some action 
in the way that nouns do. Although the adjectival and 
adverbial uses of prepositional phrases have already been 
touched upon, the importance of the general subject of 
phrases is so great as to require further consideration. 

There are two special marks by which a group of words 
may be known to form a phrase : 

1. // must do the ivork that is usually done by one word. 

To sail around the Tvorld requires a voyage of many 
weeks. 

He was busy in the office during th^'OfhoIe day. 
Catching fish is a pleasant method of passing time. 

In these sentences, to sail around the world is a noun 
phrase composed of two phrases, to sail and around the 
world. So also is catching fish a phrase. The phrase, of 
many iveeks^ modifies the noun voyage^ and of passing time 
modifies the noun method ; these are. therefore, adjective 
phrases. The adjective busy is modified by the adverbial 
phrases in the office and during the whole day. 

All these phrases are used just as if each were a single 
word. 

•2. // must not contain a verb that predicates; that is, a 
verb that actually asserts, denies, etc. 

In the sentences above, the expressions to sail, catching, 
a.nd passing are verbals, since they are derived from verbs; 
but they are not in a full sense verbs. It is impossible to 
predicate with them alone. Predication by verbals is only 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 7 

assumed or taken for granted — not cicUially made. This will 
be more fully explciincd in another place. 

Definition. — A plirase is a group of luords iised as a sin- 
gle part of speech, but containing no zuord of real predication. 

6. Exercise. — 1. Construct sentences in which shall occur the fol- 
lowing phrases : during the rain, upon the /ntt, over t tie sea, accord- 
ing to laWy by an hojtorabte life, throngti a dark wood, of tlie people, 
beside Jiis sister, beliind the wagon, across a wide river. 

2. Separate the following compound phrases into the simple 
phrases of which they are composed : at tlie bottom of t/ie sea, with his 
sister by his side, in a boat on tlie river, duritig a trip through Europe 
in vacation, earning jnoney by the hardest Jcind of labor, observing 
ttie time by tJte clocJz iji tite steeple of the old chicrcJi on tJie lull. 

3. Use the following phrases in sentences, and decide what is the 
function of each ; that is, tell which you use as nouns, which as adjec- 
tives, and which as adverbs: to study, to be answered, to have seen, 
to have been chosen, seeing a procession, eating an apple, to write a 
letter, to earn his living, havi?ig built a home, having beeji sick. 

4. Write sentences and use in them the following words each of 
which is modified by a phrase: loaf, seen, kind, caught, ficn, black, 
skate, run, river, explore. 

5. Use each of the following as the first part of a phrase: agaijist, 
between, without, upoii, pushing, having reached, in reply to, with 
regard to, down, to earn. 

4 . Exercise. — Pick out the noun, the adjective, and the adverbial 
phrases in the following sentences : 

1. Years steal fire from the eyes as vigor from the limbs. 

2. Know when to speak; for many times it brings 
Danger to give the best advice to kings. 

3. But I doubt not through the ages one increasing purpose runs. 
And the thoughts of men are widened by the process of the suns. 

4. He drew his bridle in the shade 

Of the apple trees, to greet the maid, 

And ask a draft from the spring that flowed 

Through the meadow, across the road. 

5. Talking is like playing on the harp ; there is as much in laying 
the hand on the strings to stop their vibrations as in twanging them 
to bring out their music. 

6. You must get into the habit of looking intensely at words, and 
of assuring yourself of their meaning syllable by syllable — nay, letter 
by letter. 



8 GRAMMAR. § 15 

7. Ik'iri}^ entirely rijjjlit and adhcrin;< to yonr opinion in spite of all 
tcinptalion to do otherwise, will l)e found more diffieult than being a 
iicro ill battle. 

S. There are some enemies so base that even to conquer them is a 
kind of dishonor. 

t). If there is any one point upon which, in six thousand years of 
thinking about right and wrong, wise and good men have agreed, or 
have discovered by experience, it is that God dislikes idle people and 
cruel people more than any other. 



CIjAUSE EI.EMENTS. 



DEFINITION or A CLAUSE. 

8. Two or more sentences may be made into one by 
means of conjunctions. After the union of these elements, 
they are no longer sentences, bnt clauses of a sentence. 
Thus, take the two sentences, 

The earth is round. 

Men can sail around the earth. 

These two sentences may be imited into one sentence by 
using- as a conjunction any one of the following: and^ if, so, 
then, because, for, since, inasmuch as, seeing that, etc. 

The earth is round, foi* men can sail around it. 

Here we have a sentence consisting of two clauses each 
having one subject and one predicate. 

But sometimes, when separate sentences are united, slight 
changes are necessary. This happens in such cases as the 
following: 

1. ]Vhen the subjects in two or more of the sentences 
denote the same person or tiling. 

The sun rzV^'.y in the east. The girls j/«;/^^ at home. 

The sun moves across the sky. The girls did the housework. 
The sun sets in the west. The boys went to the picnic. 

The sun rises in the east, (and) moves across the sky, and sets in 
the west. 

The girls stayed at home and did the housework, but the boys 
went to the picnic. 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 9 

Here we still have three statements, which seem to be very 
nearly complete ; for the omitted subjects are clearly implied. 

2. Whe7i two or more of the predicates are alike. 
Spring returned once more. The day is dreary. 

The birds returned once more. The world is dreary. 
The flowers returned once more. My life is dreary. 
Spring and the birds and the flowers returned once more. 
The day and the world and my life are dreary. 

A comparison of the sentences here with those above will 
show that the clause elements are more nearly complete 
when all the predicates are retained than when only one 
appears. In other words, the predicate is by far the most 
important part of a sentence. Hence, a sentence has as 
many clauses as it has different predicates; for, if it be 
rightly constructed, the subjects that are not expressed are 
plainly implied. Moreover, the imperative regularly omits 
the subject, but the predicate can rarely be omitted. 

Definition. — A clause is one of the predicating parts of 
a sentence that is composed of tivo or more such parts or 
elements. The subject of a clause may or may not be 
expressed. 

9. Exercise. — Decide what clauses compose the following sen- 
tences, and mention the connectives : 

1. The days were warm, but the nights were very cold. 

2. Be very quiet and listen attentively to the teacher's explanations. 

3. The wild geese fly north when the days become warm in the 
spring. 

4. The Cossack prince rubbed down his horse, and made for him 
a leafy bed. 

5. The man was thoroughly honest, although he was very poor 
indeed. 

6. Spend the days of youth wisely, or you may in age regret your 
neglect. 

7. The Tartar's horse looked as if the speed of thought were in 
his limbs. 

8. I had heard that voice before, though I could not have told 
where. 

9. Byron died in Greece when he was only thirty-six years old. 

10. Sir Isaac Newton proved that the path of every planet must be 
an ellipse. 



10 GRAMMAR. § 15 

FTTNCTIONS OF fr.AUSES. 

10. Clauses do a work in sentences exactly like that 
done by phrases. 

1. A Clause May Have the Function of a JsTovm. — In 

this relation, a clause may be 
(a) The snlvject of a sentence. 

JlViaf became of Henry Hudson was never ascertained. 
After the horse has been stolen is not the time for locking the door 
of the stable. 

Thai the prisoner ivas guilty appeared very doubtful. 

{b) The predicate noun. 

The question is, luho n.oas the inventor of the steam e?igine ? 
The critical moment was luhen he crossed the Ricbico7i, 

(c) The object of a verb. 

Do you know -tuhen the train leaves for Bosto?i ? 
He did exactly luhat he was told. 

((i) The object of a preposition. 

The child wondered about why the sky is so blue, 
[c) In apposition with a noun or pronoun. 
The fact, who had done the damage, was soon known. 

2. A Clause May Have tlie Function of an Adjective. 

The land that was discovered was inhabited by savages. 

The spot where John Brozvn s body rests is in the Adirondacks. 

3. A Clause May Have the Function of an Adverb. 

They buried him where he fell. 

Busy when he called, I could not see him. 

Exactly 7i>hen the clock struck, our train started. 

The first clause modifies the meaning of the verb buried; 
the second, that of the adjective busy; the third modifies the 
r.^eaning- of started. 



THE 1?AXK OF CLArSES. 

11. AVith respect to rank, there are two relations in 
which clauses may stand to one another. 

1 . Clauses May Be of Kqual Rank. — When two or more 
sentences are united into one, the relation of the clauses in 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 11 

the resulting sentences is entirely dependent on the kind of 
conjunction or other connective word used. If such words 
as and^ or^ but, also, and others of the class called coordina- 
ting conjunctions are used, the resulting sentence will con- 
sist of clauses equal in rank — each clause being of just as 
much importance as any other. Clauses connected by con- 
junctions of this kind are coordinate clauses. 

He finished his work and received his pay. 

The moon is not very distant, but we shall never succeed in reach- 
ing it. 

2. Clauses May Be of Unequal Rank. — Clauses may be 
so joined in a sentence as to have unequal importance as 
sentential elements. For example, a clause may be nothing 
more than a noun in the function it fills, or it mjay be a mere 
modifier, doing the work of an adjective, or of an adverb. 

Noun Clause. — He told me how I should enter a room. 
Adjective Clause. — The castle that we 7iow own was built during 
the period when Queen Elizabeth ruled Engla?id. 

Adverbial Clause. — Do not strike until the iron is hot. 

In the first sentence, the clause is the object of the verb 
told, just as secret would be in the sentence. He told me a 
secret. In the next sentence, the first clause modifies the 
noun castle, and the second, the noun period. These are 
therefore adjective clauses. In the last sentence, the verb 
do strike is modified by the clause nntil the iron is Iiot. 

Clauses so used may generally be omitted without destroy- 
ing the main sense of the sentence, for they serve only to 
add some circumstance or explanation to the meaning of 
a more important clause. Such are called subordinate, 
dependent, or secondary clauses, because of their inferior 
importance as sentential elements. The clause that expresses 
the main thought and has attached to it one or more helping 
or subordinate clause elements is called by various names; 
as, principal, leading, primary, or independent clause. 



SUBORDINATING CONNECTn^ES. 

13. The words used to unite independent with dependent 
clauses are of three kinds: 



J- GRAMMAR. ^15 

1. SuboiHliiiiitiii^ cMniJuiic-tioiis ; as, ?/, unless^ except^ 
providid^ list^ btcausi,, etc. 

2. Coiijiiiictive adverbs; a.<>, zi'hcfi, ii.'/iiie^ why^ ivhere^ 
after, before, as, ete. 

3. Relative pronouns; as, icho, wJiose^ luhoni, uhieh, 
that, ichat, zchoever, etc. 

13. Exercise. — 1. By using suitable subordinating conjunctions 
or conjunctive adverbs, unite the following so as to form ten sentences 
each containing an independent clause and one or more adverbial 
dependent clauses: 

f T/ie sun rises. 
I T/ie day is fine. 
AVe shall depart \ We are not we/come. 
I Our money is a/ 1 gone. 
[^ The game has been killed. 

2. Make sentences of the following, and let each contain three or 
more clauses; state also the office of each dependent clause: 



f whose word had been doubted, 
whom the officer arrested, 
Tlie ti*aveler, -\ who smiled so pleasantly. 



I whoever he might have been, 
that wt 



'e met yesterday^ 



'^asallo\\'ed 
to proceed. 



14:. Exercise. — Mention the independent and the dependent 
clauses in the following sentences, and describe fully the function of 
each dependent clause: 

1. I concluded from what he said that he had never been to Europe. 

2. When we were sailing up the Hudson we noticed the Palisades. 

3. Tell me what kind of company you keep, and I will tell you how 
much you value a pure life and a good name. 

4. Work while the day endures, for a night is coming when no man 
can work. 

5. "What Will He Do With It?" is the title of one of Bulwer's 
novels. 

6. She sang for us a beautiful song, " Comin' Thro' the Rye." 

7. Pleasure, with a winning smile, said, " Come with me and I will 
make thee happy." 

H. He was glad when he noticed how the fish kept their heads up 
stream. 



^ 15 GRAMMAk. 13 

9. A stranger came one night to Yussouf s tent, 

Saying, ' ' Behold one outcast and in dread. 
Against whose life the bow of power is bent, 
Who flies, and has not where to lay his head." 

10. Very soon the young philosopher finds that things which roll so 
easily are very apt to roll into the wrong corner, and get out of his way 
when he most wants them. 



FOBMS OF SE]^TE^CES. 



THE SIMPLE SEXTEISTCE. 

15, Sentences Have a Twofold Classilication. — We 

have seen that sentences considered with regard to the use 
that is made of them are divided into three classes. If used 
to make a statement, they are declarative ; if they express a 
question, they are interrogative ; if used in commanding, 
entreating, or wishing, they are imperative. We have seen 
too that any one of these three classes may become exclam- 
atory^ and that various combinations of two or more of these 
uses may occur in one sentence. 

We come now to consider another and very important 
classification — one that has no regard to the use that sen- 
tences serve, but is based upon their form, or structure. 

16. The Simplest Sentential Structure. — The sim- 
plest possible structure that a sentence can have is the form 
composed . of two words, one the subject^ the other the 
predicate. 

Birds 'fly. Water flo^vs. Perseverance succeeds. Who 
came ? They retreat. 

In the imperative sentence, the subject is generally omitted, 
but if it were not clearly implied there could be no thought 
expressed, and, therefore, no sentence. 
(Yoii) Come. {Thou) Behold, or Behold thou. {\'e) (Jo, or 

ij^o ye. 

Definition. — A simple sentence is a sentence composed 
of one subject^ expressed or clearly implied^ and one predicate. 



14 GRAMMAR. g 15 

17. Odior Klemoiits in a SiinpU' Solitt'iico. The 

naked torni of the simple sentenee is not often met with in 
aetual use; some other elements are usually added to the 
subject, or to the predicate, or to both. These elements may 
be zi'onis or p/i rases, but not clauses. When clauses enter, 
the sentence is no longer simple. 

Subject. Modijiers. Predicate. Modifiers. 

fmany f continually 

! beautiful ,, ^ i in the tropical forests 

^ of varied colors ' j from tree to tree 

\oi sweetest song \oi Central Africa 

In the tropical forests of Central Africa many beautiful birds of 
varied colors and sweetest song fly from tree to tree continually. 

Subject. Modifiers. Predicate. Modifiers. Object. Modifiers. 
Student - 



, with care, f his 

that ! ., J.^._. I 



, . - - , , alwavs, before . hardest 

thoughtful learned ^ , 'w lessons ^ . ^, ^ 

^ , . school time, in for that 

from the citv ! . , 

[^the morning [day 

In the morning before school time, that thoughtful student from the 
citv always learned with care his hardest iessons for that day. 

18. Exercise. — Using such connectives as are required, fit the 
following modifiers to the principal parts so as to form simple sentences. 
Endeavor to get the best possible arrangement and punctuation. 

_ . A prettv, a. with blue eves, ) \ to our ring, promptlv, 

1. uirnY/ , ■ ^ . ■ - came ^ . ^ ^ ^ -' 

\ little, very, charming \ t m answer 

I of our country, 1 f playing, in captiv- 

2. Animals ■{ many, wild, }► may be seen | ity, by the river, 

! interesting | I on pleasant days 

„ - ( for children, the, ) . (wiselv, to learn, 

3. Lesson-. ..„ , M^- ' , 

i difficult, most \ ( to use, how, time 

, T^ , . I i under the autumn skv. with its great cities, 

4. P/ain lay-^ ^ . ^ . ., - ^ . "f . 

( the, with Its silver river, before him, broad 



r with an iron constitution, with a friendly voice, 
-j down, six feet three 
I young man, talkative 



5. J/e settled -l down, six feet three in his stockings, a kind, 



1 9. Exercise. — By adding word and phrase elements, expand the 
following simple sentences, as in the preceding exercise. The expanded 
sentence must still be simple. 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 15 

1. The son^' died. The rt^rt/i passed. The roses faded. The 
//w^ Avill come. The leaves have fallen. The ajork has been 
flnished. 

2. Who discovered ? Bid Crusoe live ? Does his heart 
beat? Should nobody i^ralse V iYou^ Come. {You) Con- 
tinue. {You)'^e, 

20. Compound Members. — Two or more simple sen- 
tences may often be contracted into one sentence, which is 
itself simple. This is done by joining their like members 
by means of conjunctions. 

Subjects Conipoiinded. — 

(John goes to school. ' ' t i, i i,- • . ^ t. -i 

^■L^. ? ^ T. 1 - = John and his sister go to school 

/ His sister goes to school. \ •' " 

Is the earth round like a i 

ball? TAre the earth and its^ 

Is its moon round like a i moon, and all the I 

ball ? f = - other planets and \ 



Are ail the other planets and 
their moons round like a 
ball? 



(^ like a ball ? 



These are simple sentences zcith comi)ound subjects. 

Objects Co nip on n ded. — 

r We gathered walnuts. 1 , ^,^ ^x, a i ^ i, ^ ^ 

--^ ^ ^, J , i We gathered walnuts, chest- ) 

\ We gathered chestnuts. - = - ^ jn,. i 

„- , -. ■■ ■, / nuts, and beechnuts. \ 

\ W e gathered beechnuts. ; ^ ' 

Here we have a simple sentence luitJi a comi^ound object. 

Predicate Nouns or Adjectives Compounded. — 

r Mr. Blaine was an orator. ^ ,r t^, • . > 

K, T^i . ! Olr. Blame was an orator, a / 

\ Mr. Blame was a statesman, r = 1 . ^ • . ' 

-_ „, . . / statesman, and a patriot. 

I Mr. Blame was a patriot. j ^ 

r The boy has been honest. ] / ri,, , , , , ^ , 

„,,•',, ^ .i,r 1 The bov has been honest, 

- The bov has been truthful. V = ^ ,..', -,-. • r 

™, , - , , . , . / truthful, and industrious. \ 

[^ The boy has been industrious. J ' 

In the first of these sentences, the predicate noun is com- 
pound; in the next, the predicate adjective is compound. 

Modifying words and phrases, either adjective or adver- 
bial, may be compounded in the same manner as the more 



10 GRAMMAR. § 15 

important members. If the sentence containingf these com- 
pound elements has only one predicating verb, it is a simple 
sentence. 

The cunning- and treacherous visitor arrested by the guard strongly 
and earnestly insisted upon his innocence. 

That handsome boy and his sister are always polite and respectful 
in their bearing towards others. 

Simple sentences are often very long. There is one con- 
dition necessary in order that a sentence may be simple — it 
must contain but one predicating verb. 



THE COMPI.EX SENTENCE. 



DEFINITION OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

31. A sentence may be composed of two clauses of 
unequal rank. 

Come luhen you have time. Who believes that the earth is 
flat? Ijiiey Avas tlie s^veetest child that ever brightened a 
home. He quoted the proverb, '' Hojiesty is the best policy:' 
" Who are you ?" he inquired. 

In these sentences the principal clauses are in black- 
faced type, and the subordinate clauses in Italic. Such 
sentences are called complex sentences. 

A sentence may contain several subordinate clauses. In 
this case, if there is only one principal clause, the sentence 
is still a complex sentence. 

{ iuhe?i the sun has gone down, 
It is dangerous to be abroad ^ and 

I %vhile the air is damp. 

White youth lasts 1 

and . ' let us be hapxjy, if we can. 

our friends are many, I 

Dcllnition. — ./ complex sentence ?V <? sentence consist- 
ing of one pri)icipal clause and one or more subordinate 
clauses. 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 17 

22, Exercise. — Combine the following groups of simple sentences 
into complex sentences, and underscore the principal clause. Change 
as few words as possible. 

1. The birds go south. The snow falls. The weather becomes 
cold. 

2. The sky falls. We shall catch sparrows. We are alive at that 
time. 

3. "Who killed Cock Robin ? " The school assembled. The master 
inquired. 

4. He might become a scholar. He was seventeen years old. 
Harry's father sent him to college. 

5. The foolish man became angry. The goose laid golden eggs. 
He killed the goose. 

2S, Exercise. — Write complex sentences as follows: 

1. Two, each of which has an adjective clause. 

2. Two, each of which has an adverbial clause. 

3. Two, each of which has two or more clause modifiers. 

4. Two, each of which has for its subject a noun clause. 

5. Two, each of which has for its object a noun clause. 

6. Two, each of which has a noun clause used as the predicate noun. 

7. Two that have noun clauses in apposition. 

8. Two that have clause objects of prepositions. 



THE COMPOUIS^D SEI^TEIS^CE. 



DEFINITIOJ^ OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

34. If by the use of subordinating connectives clauses be 
joined in such relation that one of them is more important 
than any of the others, the sentence is, as we have learned, 
complex. But if coordinating connectives be used, the clauses 
joined will be of equal rank. If these coordinate clauses do 
not stand in an inferior or dependent relation to some more 
important clause, the sentence is called a compound sen- 
tence. 

The simplest possible form of the compound sentence con- 
sists of two imperative clauses of which the subjects are 
understood. 

Go and see. Conic or g^o. Call or write, 81ee|)aud rt^st, 



18 GRAMMAR. § 15 

Other and longer compound sentences having two clauses 
of equal rank — independent clauses and no dependent clauses, 
are as follows : 

Sit still and study your lesson. Who met and repulsed the 
enemy ? I neither kno\v nor do I care. The farmer plowed the 
field and soAved it with wheat. The farmer plowed and sowed 
in the spring. Dare to do right, dare to be true. 

Compound sentences may be lengthened by the addition 
of subordinate clauses: 

jr/ien 7ue started the rain Avas falling, but the sky was 
clear before we reached our destinatiofi. The good die young, is an 
old saying, but it is not true. Do not trust him that makes 
many promises, nor doubt him too much that jnakesfew. 

Deftnition.— -.i compound sentence is a sentoicc com- 
posed of tii'o or more independent clauses^ luitJi or luithoiit 
subordinate clauses. 

Such sentences as the following are by some grammarians 
classed as simple sentences ivitJi compound predicates: 

The winds bleiu and beat upon that house. 

The children rode, walked, drove, or played in the park every day. 

Mary washed^Ca^ dishes, polished the silver, and dusted the furniture. 

In this work, however, such sentences are regarded as 
compound. The reason for this is that the verb is by far 
the most important element in every sentence. It can never 
be omitted from a simple sentence, but any other element 
may be lacking. The subject of an imperative sentence is 
regularly omitted, while, without a verb, there can be no 
sentence — no expressed thought. A sentence is therefore 
regarded as containing as many clauses as there are verbs of 
actual predication. 

35. Connectives May Be Understood. — When we wish 
to unite words into a series, it is common to omit some of the 
connectives when they may easily be understood and supplied. 

Apples, pears, peaches, and other fruits are found in the market. 

Busy, happy, contented, charming, were those children. 

In a similar way, the connectives between clauses are often 
omitted; or, the arrangement of the clauses may be such that 
the connective serves to introduce rather than to connect. 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 19 

I promised him I would visit him = I promised him that I would 
visit him. 

Should he come I would go = I would go if he should come. 

While we live let us live = Let us live while we live. 

Where do you think he has gone ? Whom do you imagine I saw ? 

36. Exercise. — Write the following compound sentences and 
underscore the verbs of the independent clauses. Tell the office of 
each subordinate clause, and mention the connectives. 

1. Sorrow was dead indeed in her, but peace and perfect happiness 
were born. 

3. Once upon a time a good many years ago, there was a traveler, 
and he set out upon a journey. 

3. When it rained, they remained within doors ; but when it was 
fine weather, they wandered all day long in the woods. 

4. The sky was so blue, the sun was so bright, the water was so 
sparkling, the leaves were so green, the flowers were so lovely, and 
they heard so many singing birds and saw so many butterflies, that 
everything was beautiful. 

5. He called many times but there was no reply, and when he passed 
out of the wood and saw the peaceful sun going down upon a wide pur- 
ple prospect, he came to an old man sitting upon a fallen tree. 

6. The whole journey was through a wood, only it had been open 
and green at first, like a wood in spring ; and now it began to be thick 
and dark, like a wood in summer. 

7. I consider the noble savage a prodigious nuisance and an enor- 
mous superstition; and his calling rum "firewater " and me a "pale- 
face " wholly fail to reconcile me to him. 

8. The day is done, and the darkness falls from the wings of night 
As a feather is wafted downward from an eagle in his flight. 

9. Mourn not for the owl, nor his gloomy plight j 

The owl hath his share of good : 
If a prisoner he be in the bright daylight, 
He is lord in the dark green wood. 

10. For ghosts unseen crept in between, 

And when our songs flowed free. 
Sang discords in an undertone, 

And marred the harmony; 
" The past is ours, not yours," they said; 

" The waves that beat the shore, 
Though like the same are not the same, 

Ah, never, nevermore." 



'.>() GRAMMAR. § 15 

11. Reformers all call it a poisonous weed, 

They class it with brandy and gin. 
Physicians, too, tell of diseases 'twill breed, 
And ministers preach of the sin. 

27. ExERCiSK. — Tell which of the following sentences are simple, 
which complex, and which compound; tell also the kind of clauses, and 
mention the connectives. 

1. When I die, put near me something that has loved the light, and 
had the sky above it always. 

2. In the preface to his collected works, De Quincey has fully defined 
his own position and claim to distinction. 

3. While William of Orange lived, he was the guiding star of a 
whole brave nation ; and when he died, the little children cried in the 
streets. 

4. The place ^vhere shining souls have passed imbibes a grace 
beyond mere earth. 

5. The way was long, the wind was cold, 
The minstrel was infirm and old ; 
His withered cheek and tresses gray 
Seemed to have known a better day. 

6. With smoking axle hot with speed, with steeds of fire and steam, 
Wide-waked Today leaves Yesterday behind him like a dream ; 
Still, from the hurrying train of Life, fly backward far and fast 
The milestones of the fathers, the landmarks of the past. 

7. " To do the best for yourself is finally to do the best for others," 
said the lecturer on political economy. 

!^. To him who in the love of nature holds communion with her 
visible forms, she speaks a various language. 

9. The bravest are the tenderest, the loving are the daring. 

10. Death is the end of life ; then why should life all labor be ? 



SENTENTIAL ANALYSIS, 



AXAI.YSIS OF SIMPIiE SEXTEXCES. 

28. The Meaning: of -'Analysis." — The word analysis 
means "a taking apart "; it is the opposite of syfit/usis, " a 
putting together. " With regard to sentences, analysis is any 
scheme of representing the relations and functions of the 
words, phrases, and clauses that are joined in sentences. 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 21 

This is usually done by means of diagrams, and of these, 
many systems have been devised by different authors. 

39. Sentences Slioiild Kot Be Dismembered in 
Analysis. — The most serious objection that has been urged 
against analysis by diagrams is that nearly all methods of 
analysis so separate the sentential elements that the student 
is unable to put them together again. This objection is 
obviated in the scheme that will now be explained. 

30. Subject and Predicate. — The subject is enclosed 
in marks of parenthesis, ( ) ; the predicate is enclosed in 
brackets, []. The marks of parenthesis and the brackets 
used in a principal clause should be heavier than those used 
in subordinate clauses. When the subject or any other ele- 
ment is to be represented as imderstood, the fact is indicated 
by means of a cross ^ X, or a caret, \. 

(Birds) [fly]. ( /\) [Make] haste. (X) [Tell] /\ me your secret of success. 
Some mute inglorious (Milton) here [may rest]. (Let no one ignorant 
of geometry enter here) [was inscribed] above the entrance. 

31. Predicate Complements. — That a noiiii or ^ pro- 
noun is the object of a verb is indicated by two parallel lines 
below it, z==. If this object is a phrase or a clause, 
the parallels are extended to include it. 

(They) [counted] the stars. My (sister) [means] to return. (He) 
earnestly [desired] to be thought honest. The (watchman) [cried], 
"Midnight, and Cornwallis is taken." " I cannot sing the old songs," 



[said] the young (lady). 

A predicate noun or pronoiDi is denoted by two parallel 
lines above it, and a predicate adjective by a straight line 
above a wavy line, ~ . The lines denoting a predi- 
cate adjective may be cither above or below the adjective. 



The (boy) [was] assuredly a gentleman. (Cherries) [are] ripe. The 



(roses) [were] in bloom. The battlc(ship) [was] about to be tested. 



\ 



("What will he do with it?") [was] tlie question. (They) [seemed] very 
tired. 



22 GRAMMAR. § 15 

^2, Modify! nix Klenients. — A modifier is connected by 
an arrow with the element it modifies. 



iJ7\ I 1 , ' ^- 7^^ Here /wv is the predicate 

I He) was a manlv, intdhgent boy. ^ ^. 

T I " I t noun. • 

J _ l_ I 33Lrv^ Vicious is the predicate 

My (dog) [is] bv no means vicious. adjective. 

-XL t 1 J 



\ -[= \ =zJ= JI — ^ 

(Liberty), within due limits, [is] an inherent right of all men. 

\ J T I i 1 

Right is the predicate uoun^ and denoted the same thing 
as liberty — is only another name for the subject. 

33. Iiulependent Elements and Connectives. — Inde- 
pendent elements arc indicated by a wavy line, , and 

connectives by the plus sign, +. If a connective has any other 
function, this fact may be indicated as already explained. The 
following analyses will illustrate these points: 



The king, (he) [can do] no wrong. 



(Jack), the Giant Killer, [performed] some wonderful exploits. 



John, [can] (you) [explain] to rae the true cause of the tides? 

t [ t -X- 5 ¥" 1 



The (warp) and (woof) of man's life [are! past and future time. 

-r- M ^ ^ i 1 -1= — r- t 

^si \ + 

[Didl (I) iiot, sir, carefully [explain] to you what (I) [wanted]? 



T ^r \ 



In the first sentence, kiug is independent hy pleonasm; in 
the second, (liant Killer is independent by apposition ; in the 
third, John is independent by address. 

IV'sidcs btin^L;- a connective, 7<'Jiat^ in the last sentence, is 
the object of ioa>ited ; 7chat I zoanted is the object of did 
ex phi in. 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 23 



In every deed of mischief, (he), the Spirit of Malevolence, [had] a head 



to contrive,/,a heart to resolve, and a hand to execute. 



''A 



T ^=^ I L 



AKAliYSIS OF COMPI.EX AIS^B COMPOUND 

SEKTEKCES. 

34. Mappln|2r of Sentences. — Accompanying the minute 
analysis of every complex and every compound sentence there 
should be a diagram showing the plan of its clauses. This 
diagram should be constructed as follows : 

1. An independent clause should have a si'g-n of equality 

at the beginning and the end of a heavy horizontal line 

indicating the clause ; thus, 

+ 
= = — The sun set and the moon rose. 

2. A subordinate clause should be represented by a light 
horizontal line, and should be separated from independent 
clauses and from other subordinate clauses by a sign of 
inequality. The opening of this sign should be turned 
toward the clause of which the dependent clause is an 
element. 

= = +> The moon rose bcfo7'-e the sicn set. 

+ 

< = = If the day is fine, we shall go. 

-t- (+> ■ 

< = =4 + Befo7^e I leave I shall see yon, ij 

l > 

yoi/ are at leisicre and wish me to come. 

3. If an independent clause is broken by one or more 
contained subordinate clauses, the fact should be shown as 
follows : 

= f-> < = The lionse that fae/c biiitt stood hy 

the sea. 



,14: GRAAniAR. g ]5 

Ikic- llic colilicetixc ///(fl is iLpivscntcd l)y the- plus si^t^n. 

i > < ) 

and //I u'/iicli i/w sciiooUiousc stood Jiad a trout stream tloAviii^ 
tliroii^li it. 

+ 

<H < = 1-> — — < = When lue said that ive 

had lost our ivay, tlie f iiriner''s av ife, AV^itli a smile that made 
us feel at home, invited lis to stay to diiiuer. 



MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 

35. If the ■ student finds any of the following analyses 
difficult, he should review them frequently. He will see 
their difficulties clear away as he reconsiders them in the 
light of what he learns after first studying them. The abil- 
ity to solve all doubtful questions concerning the functions 
and relations of sentential elements is the best evidence of 
thorough grammatical knowledge. Analysis of sentences, 
therefore, should be persisted in as the best possible prep- 
aration for understanding and writing good English. Before 
attempting the detailed analysis of a sentence, its general 
outline, showing the relation and kind of its clause elements, 
should be prepared. 



1. = 



.+ 



Sydney Smith's (name) [is] a synonym of wit ; but (he) [has left] 



behind him evidences of far higher powers, 



-^ ,rr~7~ — "I * n 



(Righteousness) [exalteth] a nation, but (sin) [is] a reproach to any peopla 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 2b 



3. = = 



-jz: — ^ ] — ~ I 

Now [fades] the glimmering (landscape) on the sight, 



And 



all the air a solemn (stillness) [holds]. 

T T" T " ^ I — ^ 



NotE. — The author's meaning may have been that az'r holds still- 
ness, or it may have been the reverse, as in the diagram. 

4.^ ^. =+> 



II) then [let] myself down and^/ [swath] across the channel 

+ I + — 



(which) [lay] between the ship and the sands. 



+> 



, . i ■ ■ I ^ I — i^:: — — I 

(He) [spoke] of Burns : (men) rude and rough 



[Pressed] round to hear the praise of one 



Whose (heart) [was made] of manly, simple stufif. 

"^^ * t — 1 — I t 



6. = 

I ^ 

(it) [is] the ancient feeling of the human heart, that (knowledge) 



[is] better than (riches) •• •' ; and (it) fis] deeply and sacredly true. 

t Z=J— "" ^ ^— T— I t 

RicJies is the subject of a clause of which the verb and 
predicate adjective, are better^ are understood. This clause 
Is a modifier of the meaning" of the adjective better. 



2(j 



GRAMMAR. 



§15 



7. 






r^ 



4- 



The (American) [is], for the most part, a nomad, (who) [pulls] down 



his house as the (Tartar) [pulls] up his tent-poles. 

The connective 'H'/io = and Jic; so that the first and second 
clauses are independent, and the sentence is compound. 



8. 



< 



+ 1 i -^=r a 

Oft when the (wine) in his glass [was] red, 



(He) [longed] for the wayside well instead 



A> 



+ ( ) JZ— I -J- ' 1 

And ^ [closed] his eyes on his garnished rooms, 



To dream of meadows and ^clover brooms. 

" I ! 

Instead has of tJic icine understood after it. This word is in 
reality a prepositional phrase, in steady written as one word. 
There are many such ; as, indeed, aboard, astern, toiuards^ 
etc. When so written, they are commonly used as adverbs. 

. = 1 - + 



+>- 



+> 



\ 



The (world) [will] little [note] nor long [remember] what (we) [say] here: 



but (it) [can] never [forget] what (they) [did] here. 

The first i>.'Jiat is the object of say — ice say luhat; the 
second is the object of did — they did wJiat. In like manner, 
li'hat zi'e say here is the object of remember, and ivhat they 
did here is the object of can forget. 



10. +> 



GRAMMAR. 

-0 +> <~ 



27 



When (water), not in very great body, [runs] in a rocky bed 

1" t T — r~ I 



rT+ 



much interrupted by hollows, so that (it) [can rest] 

-HZ 1 I T t 



every now and then in a pool as (it) [goes] along, (it) [does] not 

"~ T~ ^ "LJ T 1 =r~ I ~r 

I ^ — 

[acquire] a continuous velocity of motion. 

1 T I =\T= I 



11. 



+> < 



+> 4-> 



The old (man), as (he) [nods] over the solemn verse of Wordsworth, 

T 1 I 1 1 



JI 1 



1 -\- 



[v/ill recognize] the affinity between the singer and the calm sheet 

t s^ I r 



+ 




r~ 


-h 






(that) 


[lay] 
t 


before him 


as 


(he) 


[wrote]. 

t ■ 






J 



I 



12. — 



+> 



A wandering harper, scorned and poor, 



(He) [begged] his bread from door to door; 



■*" ( )r 1 -I I ^ 

And ^ '[tuned], to please a peasant's ear, 



i t "IT 



r — I 4. £ — ^i' 

The harp "J" a (king) [had loved] to hear. 

— _ -t I 



k 



'Zii GRAMMAR. g 15 

4- 



13. 



A little (learning) [is] a dangerous thing; 

T -r-' ^ T I f 



-f ^ r— D L I — ^ 

[Drink] deep, or [touch] not the Pierian spring. 

t =1- t ^= 

Def/> is usually an adjective. Here it is an adverb^ unless 
the meaning- is that after the drinking, the lowered surface of 
the liquid is deep below the top of the vessel from which the 
drink is taken. 



But (grief) [should be] the instructor of the wise; 

~ T- t 1 



\ ' + _iz — \ 

(Sorrow) [is] knowledge : (they) (who) [know] the most 

t ^ — ^ 



[Must mourn] the deepest o'er the fatal truth, 

t I I 



The (Tree) of Knowledge [is] not that of Life. 

n:! 1 I — t — I — 



3G, Exercise. — Make clause outlines and detailed diagrams for 
the following sentences: 

1. Indian summer is caused by the decay or slow combustion of 
the leaves. 

2. We read of the age of stone, of gold, and of iron ; the world is 
now entering the age of electricity. 

3. I am monarch of all I survey, my right there is none to dispute; 
From the center all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and 

the brute. 

4. If you should talk to him of Jacob's ladder, he would ask hovT 
many rounds it had. 

5. Habit is the memory of the bodily organs. 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 29 

6. A little child will place a shell to liis car and will hear in it the 
roar of the distant ocean. 

7. It is not linen you are wearing out, but human creatures' lives. 

8. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll ; 
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain. 

9. Upon this hint I spake ; 

She loved me for the dangers I had passed, 
And I loved her that she did pity them. 

10. And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the 

floor, 
Shall be lifted nevermore. 

11. On a lone barren isle, where the wild roaring billows 

Assail the stern rock, and the loud tempests rave. 

The hero lies still, where the dew-dropping willows 

Like fond weeping mourners lean over his grave. 

12. The reward for discharging one duty is the power to perform 

another. 

13. The unwearied sun frorn day to day 
Does his Creator's power display, 
And publishes to every land 

The works of an Almighty hand. 

14. If you wish information and improvement from the knowledge 
of others, and at the same time express yourself as firmly fixed in your 
present opinions, modest, sensible men, who do not love disputation, 
will probably leave you undisturbed in possession of your error. 

15. He had some ingenious men among his friends, who amused 
themselves by writing little pieces for this paper, which gained it 
credit and made it more in demand, and these gentlemen often visited 
us. 

16. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; 
I come to bury Ceesar, not to praise him. 

The evil that men do lives after them ; 
The good is oft interred with their bones. 

17. " Good-bye " is only a shortened form of " God be with you.'' 

18. Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control. 
These three alone lead life to sovereign power. 



4 

I 



GRAMMAR. 

(PART 3.) 



THE PAHTS OF SPEECH, 



THE I'fOUN— ITS SUBDIVISION'S. 

1, Classes of Nouns. — Any word or expression, whether 
long or short, that is used in speech or writing as the name 
of anything, is a noun. 

Nouns are divided into tzvo great classes: 

1. Common Nouns. 2. Proper Nouns. 



COMMON NOUNS. 

2, Generic, or Class Names. — Most of the nouns in our 
language are class names; that is, names applied in connnon 
or in general to things of the same kind. The word coin- 
rnon is derived from two words meaning ''bound together." 
The things denoted by a common noun are united or bound 
together into one group by certain likenesses — certain com- 
mon qualities. Thus, the word boy is not a name given to 
one particular thing and to no other; it is a name of any one 
of a great geniis^ or class composed of millions of objects that 
are alike in certain particulars. These class, or generic 
names are common nouns. 

Definition. — A common noun is a noun used to name a 
class of tilings. 

§16 

Vox notice of llic cojivri.ijlit , sec jia^r ininuMliatel v follow in. i;' tlio litlo ]in.i;v. 



2 GRAMMAR. § 16 

3, Classes of Common !N"ouns. — Common nouns have 
been variously subdivided, but all of them may be included 
under two great classes, as follows: 

I. X(7;/ns of Tilings Sensible. — This class comprises 
the names of substances that are material, and are, there- 
fore, capable of being- perceived by the senses; as, tree, 
horse, sound, brightness, sourness, iceight, roughness, odor, 
fragrafiee. 

II. Names of Tilings Rational. — This group includes 
the class names of all things that are merely conceived or 
thought of as existing, and cannot be recognized by the 
direct aid of any of the senses; as, goodness, truth, absence, 
nearness, mind, thought. loss, fear, regret. 

Some of the nouns belonging in these classes have been 
grouped as follows: 

1. Collective Xou/is. — These are sometimes called nouns 
of multitude, because they denote many things united and 
thought of as in one group; as, army, jury, congress, flock, 
nation, tribe, regimoit, family. 

2. Abstract Xouns. — These are words that name qualities 
considered apart from the objects that have the qualities, 
conditions, or states — without notice of the things in which 
the qualities belong; as, redness, drozvsiness, fatigue, keenness. 
Some abstract nouns are words that name relations inde- 
pendently of the things related; as, nearness, superiority, 
promptitude, brevity, area. These nouns are so called 
because they name something drazcn azvay or abstracted 
from the real things that have the quality, state, or relation. 
Thus, we may think about lengtJi or color or honesty or 
distance or sadness without considering with attention any 
sensible objects that have such qualities. Other examples 
are rudeness, solidity, brevity, reason, beauty, absence, for- 
getfulness, roundness, silence, emptiness, quality, number, 
steadiness. 

'^. Verbal Xouns. — Some words that are made from verbs 
are used to name actions, just as tree and nioon name real 
things. 



§ 16 GRAMMAR. 3 

Walking is better exercise than riding. My having beeti arrested 
counted against me. Seeing is believing. Sewing, cooking, and 
dressmaking are now taught in some schools. 

Verbal nouns are really abstract nouns, for they name 
action apart from the actor, just as goodness is the name of 
something thought of as separated from an object that is 
good. 

4. Other N'ouns Regarded as Common. — A common 
noun has been defined as a name applied to a class of things, 
but there are many nouns that do not name classes and yet 
are usually regarded as common nouns. Such are : 

1. The names of the sciences ; as, chemistry^ astronomy^ 
physics. 

2. The names of diseases ; as, cholera^ pneumonia^ 
scarlatina. 

3. The names of drugs and chemicals; as, quinine^ 
bromine, phenacetin. 

Indeed, there is much confusion among authors in classi- 
fying nouns, but it is a matter of little practical consequence. 
The only really important matter is that the student shall be 
able to know with certainty that a certain word, on account 
of the work it does, is a noun. 



PROPER NOUNS. 

5. Nearly all the objects that we think and talk about 
belong in some class or other, and when we wish to refer to 
them, their class names are generally definite enough. If 
for any reason it is necessary to specify more particularly a 
thing that belongs to one of these classes, we may do so by 
pointing to it, or by joining modifying words to its class 
name. Thus, we may say, that large red apple, the tall 
man zvith black hair, the largest city in the world. But 
this is not always satisfactory. We may wish to send a 
letter, money, or other object to some man living and mov- 
ing about among millions of other men in some great city. 
It is often necessary to distinguish one thing very clearly 



4 GRAMMAR. § IG 

from every other in its class. This can be done better than 
in any other way by giving it a name of its own; as, Boston^ 
July, Henry Clay, William McKinlcy. Such names are 
proper nouns; they are so called from the Latin word 
proprius, meaning "one's own." A proper noun is usually 
set apart for the purpose of naming one person or otJier 
object ; and if its work is to be done perfectly, the name 
must be used for no other purpose. A common noun dis- 
tinguishes one class from every other class, while a proper 
noun is intended to distinguish one thing from ever}' other 
thing. 

Definition. — A proper noun is a noun used as a special 
or afi i)i dividual name. 

0. Proper Xouns Used as Common Xoiins. — A noun 
that is strictly proper cannot be preceded by a or an, for 
these modifiers imply that the word before which one of 
them is placed names a class of things. Thus, a Clay, a 
Lincoln, a Boston, denotes that there is a class of Clays, ol 
Lin coins, and of Bostons. When preceded by a or an, these 
words should be called common nouns. 

The following sentences illustrate this usage; and the 
nouns, although really common, retain their capitals: 

A Daniel come to judgment. Some mute inglorious ^Milton nere 
may rest. He is a veritable Hercules. 



I]STL.ECTIOXS OF THE >OUX. 

7. Definition of Infleetion. — The word inflection is one 
that is much used in grammar. It comes from two Latin 
words that mean "in" and "a bending"; it denotes that 
something is bent or changed from one form or condition into 
another. Thus, we speak of the inflections of the voice, mean- 
ing its changes from certain tones to others that are higher 
or lower. As used in grammar, inflection signifies those 
changes in the form of a word that come from changes in its 
use or meaning. Generally, but not always, inflections are 



§ 16 GRAMMAR. 5 

variations or additions at the end of a word ; and the simplest 
or most commonly used form of a word may be called its 
inflectional base. 

The following will illustrate what is meant by the inflection 
of nouns: 

Uninfiected. — The <5(?y ate. The <:/?//«!' ran. The ;;/(??/j-<? plays. The 
goose flies. 

Infiected. — The boy^ ate. The childv^n ran. The ;;dce play. The 
^eese fly. 

The-^ , ,Vhome. The-^ , ., , , Vmoney. 
I boy^^ \ \ childv^rC^ \ •' 

The^ . , Vfur. The^*^ , Vwmgs. 

|;;ace's \ | geese's) ^ 

Definition. — An inflection of a ^vorcl is a change in its 
for VI made in consequence of a difference in its vieamng or use. 

8. ^N^ouns Have Tliree Kinds of Inflections. — Nouns 
are inflected for three^ purposes : 

1. To Denote Niunber. — That is, to show whether a noun 
signifies one of the objects it names, or more tJian one of them ; 
as, horse, horses ; church, churches ; ox, oxen ; die, dice ; etc. 

2. To Denote Sex. — Many nouns have one form for males 
and another for females. This distinction is not always made 
by a real inflection or change of form ; but when it is so made, 
the inflectional base — the tminflected form — denotes the male 
sex, and the inflected, or changed form denotes the female 
sex. 

> Thus, lion, actor, count, marquis, negro, are uninflected 
forms, and they name males; lioness, actress, countess, mar- 
chioness, negress, by means of inflection, name females. 

3. To Denote Case. — This is the relation in which a noun or 
any substitute for a noun stands to other words in a sentence. 
While there are several different relations that nouns may 
have in sentences, and therefore several cases, there is only 
one case that is shown by inflection. This is the one that 
^^no\&'& possession ; as, John's hat. There are several differ- 
ent relations that are shown by this case. Among them are 
origin; ^% the sun's rays : attachment ox adjunct ; as, man's 
duty, the earth's iveight : etc. 



6 GRAMMAR. § 16 

9. Another riiiiction of Xouns. — When a noun is so 
used in a sentence as to name or denote the speaker^ the 
person spoken to, or the person spoken of, it is sometimes said 
to be inflected for pei-son. This, however, is not an inflec- 
tion at all, for an inflection is a cJiange of form. This func- 
tion of nouns is shown by other words in the sentence — the 
context. The noun itself remains unchanged, whether it 
denotes the speaker, the person addressed, or the person or 
thing spoken about in the sentence. Thus, 

Speaking. — I, Jofm, saw it. 
Addressed.— fohn, come here. 
spoken of. — I met fo/m. 

For convenience, however, it is usual to say that nouns 
have four inflections. 

10. Special Names of Inflections. — Of the eight parts 
of speech, five either really have inflection or are said to have 
it. When some or all of the inflections of any part of speech 
are arranged in an orderly way, the collection has, for that 
particular class, a special name. 

1. Nouns and pronouns have declension — we decline 
them. 

2. Adjectives and adverbs have comparison — we com- 
pare them. 

3. Verbs have conjugation — w^e conjugate them. 

The remaining parts of speech are not inflected ; they have 
forms that never vary whatever change may occur in the 
way they are used in sentences. They are said to be unin- 
flected or invariable, 

11. Kinds of Change in Inflected Words. — There are 

three methods of grammatical inflection : 

1. By Suffixes. — As, boy, boy"^^; ox, oxen*, god, goddess; 
child, childvew. This is the method most in use in inflecting 
English words. Inflection by suffixes often requires some 
change in the inflectional base. Thus, tiger, ti^vess; duke, 
i\\\v\vess ; calf, calv^'.y. 

2. By Change Within. — This method, by change within 
the body of the wordj is much less comrnon than the first^ 



\ 



§ 16 GRAMMAR. 7 

and it occurs most frequently among certain verbs; as run, 
rsLU ; sing, sang, sung. Of nouns, we have examples in man, 
7nen; mouse, mxae ; tooth, tGGth; foot, feet. 

A combination of the first and second methods is frequent; 
as slay, ^/ew, slain ; brother, ^retliren. 

3. By Different Words. — As, witch, ivizard ; boy, girl; 
am, is, was ; I, zve ; lie goat, she goat ; man servant, maid 
serva7tt. 

As has been said, this is not inflection ; but, as a matter of 
mere convenience, grammarians, with but few exceptions, 
treat it as a real inflection. 



NUMBER IN NOUNS. 

13. Definition of :N"uml3ei'. — Whether a noun means 
one, or more than one, of the objects it names, is known from 
one or both of two facts : 

1. Its form ; as, 7ne?i, houses, trees. 

2. Its use ; as, The slieep is black. The sheep are 
mine. That fish is dead. These fish are salmon. 

Definition. — TJie number of a word is that form or use 
of it by which it denotes one or more than one. 

Definition. — The singular number of a ivord is that 
form or use of it by tuhich it denotes one. 

Definition, — The plural number of a word is that form 
or use of it by which it denotes more than one. 

13. Rules for Forming the Plural of N'ouns. — Many 
nouns are arbitrary in the formation of their plurals, and for 
this reason cannot be brought under the operation of any rule. 
The following rules, however, include most English nouns: 

I. General Rule. — Most nouns form their plural by add- 
ing s or es to the singular. 

star, stars; do.x, boxes; church, churches. 

The ear is nearly always a sure guide in determining 
whether s should be added or whether es is required. The 
following cases should be notecj ; 



8 (xRAMMAR. § KJ 

II. S/^i'cial Rules. — 1. Nouns ending (a) in s, sh, x, z, 
c-h softy and sonic ending (d) in o after a eon sonant, are 
plnralized by adding es ; as, mass, masses; /as/i, lasJies; sex, 
sexes; topaz, topazes. 

Some examples of (/;) arc ealieo, tornado, torpedo, innu- 
endo, virago, mulatto, stiletto, wo, potato, mango, eargo, eeJio, 
liero, negro, embargo, buffalo, ete. Many words of this kind 
take only s ; as, eanto, junto, grotto, solo, quarto, tyro, 
oetavo, bravo, nuneio, embryo, portico, etc. 

'I. Nouns in y preceded by a vowel add s ; as, chimney, 
volley, whiskey, money, key, play, viceroy, alley, monkey, 
guy, etc. 

;>. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y 
into i and then add es ; as, Jly, ally, :ity. etc. 

4. Some nouns ending in f or fe change the f into v, and 
then add es; as, thief, wife, life, wolf, sheaf beef, loaf 
calf, half, leaf, elf knife, shelf self, etc. ; wharf and staff 
have in the plural wharves or wJiarfs, and staves or staffs. 
Others in f and fe add s alone; as, fife, gulf, etc. 

5. Compounds generally pluralize the modified part; as, 
brothers-in-law, corner-stones, wagon-loads, etc. When the 
elements of the compound are closely associated, the s is 
put at the end; as, graveyards, pineapples, forget-me-nots, 
spoonfuls. 

(*). Letters, numerals, and arbitrary characters are gener- 
ally pluralized by taking 's; as, 9's, A's, -\-'s, 4/ 's. 

7. The plurals of proper nouns are generally formed 
regularly ; as, the Dr. Brozvns. But we may say, the Messrs. 
Howard, the Doctors King, the tzuo Miss Joneses, or the tivo 
Misses Jones. The names of two or more persons each of 
whom has the same title are pluralized thus: Generals, 
Grant and Sherman; the Misses Jones, Smith, and Brown 
(if unmarried); Mesdames Jones, Smith, and Broivn (if 
married) ; Messrs. Bray and Martin. 

14. Exercise. — 1. Use in sentences the plurals of the following 
words: money, ihuarf, hero, tomato, gas, roof, checker-board, penny, 
fish, grouse. 



J 



§ 16 GRAMMAR. 9 

2. Write five sentences each containing a noun shown by its form 
to be plural. 

3. "Write five sentences each containing" a noun shown by its i/se to 
be plural. 

4. Find out which of the following are singular and which plural: 
news, wages, politics, means, 7'ichcs, alms, measles, victitals, scales, 
dregs, scissors, committee, audience. 

5. Write the plural of handful, knight-templar, rose-tree, mother- 
superior, court-martial. Miss Alexander, postmaster-ge7ieral, Mrs. 
Ewing. 



GENI>ER IX NOUXS. 

15. How Words Denote Sex. — The distinction of sex., 
whether real or imagined in the things denoted by nouns, 
is made, if made at all, in the following ways : 

1. By the fonri^ or by the meaning, of zvords; as, empress., 
girl., ruffian., luitck, woman. 

2. By the use made of other words., or by the context; as, 
When the sun exerted his power, the moon shed her beams in vain. 

Animals alone have sex in the usual sense ; and with the 
exception of the highest classes of these, their sex is not 
generally regarded as of sufficient importance to be noted 
in language. The young of human kind, and even adults, 
are often spoken of exactly as if they were without sex. 
Thus, we say: 

The child had finished its sleep. The 7ne?nbers of the party enjoyed 
themselves at the picnic. 

16. Sex and Gender. — The student must carefully dis- 
tinguish between sex ^vl^l gender. The former is a character- 
istic of living beings, the latter of words. Thus, the word 
man has gender, and the object named by the word has sex. 

Definition. — TJie gender of a word is that form or use 
of it by which it denotes sex. 

Definition. — The rxisi^ewWne gejider is that form or use 
of a word by which it denotes the male sex. 

Definition. — The few\\\\\\\e gender is that form or use of 
a zvord by ivJiicJi it denotes the female sex. 



10 GRAMMAR. § Ifi 

IH'fliiitioii. -/7/r uviiivv i;^i //(/( r is tluit form or use of a 
ivord by icJiicli it licnolis the ahseiiee of sex. 

DeHnitioM. — The foiniuoii gemier is that form or use of 
a ix'ord that renders the sex iiitlefliiite or uncertain. 

17. Gender by Form or Meaning. — There are two 
methods by which gender is denoted hy form : 

1. By Gender Suffixes. — The endings ess, en., ine^ trix^ 
ster, and a usually denote that the word is of the feminine 
gender. When these suffixes are added to the masculine 
form, some modification in spelling is usually necessary. 

Masculine. — Baron, actor, master, executor, hero, sigtior. 
Feminine. — Baroness, actress, mistress, executrix, heroine, signora. 

2. By Gender Prefixes. — By prefixes or separate modi- 
fiers, such as vian^ woman, male, female, lie, she, expressions 
denoting gender are formed. 

Masculine. — Man servant, cock robin, he goat, menfolk. 
Feminine. — Maid servant, hen robin, she goat, luomenfolk. 

By their meaning, without respect to form, words may 
denote sex. 

Masculine. — Man, monk, 7iephe7i<, husband, wizard, uncle. 
Feminine. — Woman, nun, niece, wife, witch, aunt. 

18. Gender by Use or Context. — There are two prin- 
cipal varieties of this method of denoting gender : 

1. Things having sex are often denoted by words that 
do not indicate any particular sex. In such cases, other 
words in the sentence may show the sex. 

The elephant performed his task. The robin attacked her 
enemies. The governor married one of his clerks. 

2. Things without sex may be personified ; that is, they 
may be spoken of as if they were persons. This is often done 
in poetr}'. Objects characterized by energy^, strength, great 
size, or violence are represented as masculine; those conceived 
of as tender, refined, weak, beautiful, or gentle are treated 
as feminine. Thus, 



§16 GRAMMAR. 11 

Masculine. — The sun, the occiui, wintci', iijiood, a rk'cr during- a 
flood, a mountain, the various vices, actions characterized by rage, 
energy, or violence, such as murder, war, riot. 

Femiiiine. — Sprijig, a ship, a balloon, the moon, many of the more 
delicate and beantiinl powers, such as the lilj, violet, rose, etc., cities 
and countries. 

19. Omission of Feminine Distinctions. — There is an 
increasing tendency to omit the distinctions that mark the 
feminine gender. This is especially the case with prefixes 
and suffixes. Thus, we apply to both males and females 
such words as servant.^ doctor.^ artist^ poet, clerk, executor, 
minister, citizen. 

Indeed, the inflection for gender is of very little impor- 
tance in grammar; and, with the lapse of time, it is being 
more and more ignored. As illustrations of the truth of this 
statement, it may be remarked that most grammarians reject 
the common gender, and many, the neuter gender. The 
need for them has been much diminished since parsing has 
ceased to be regarded as an important grammatical exercise. 

30. Gender of Proper ;N"ames. — There are many pairs 
of proper names similar in form for the two sexes ; as, Julius, 
Julia; Charles, Caroline or Charlotte (Latin, Carolus, 
Carolina^', William (German, Wilhehn), Wilhelmina ; 
Henry, Henrietta. 

31. Exercise. — 1. Write the feminine forms of abbot, gander, 
Joseph, master, bachelor, marquis, John, count, heir, testator, Paul, 
sir, czar, sultan, horse, king, Augustus, earl, drake, colt, hart, 
Lucius (Luke), buck, ram, shepherd, Louis, monk, friar, widower, 
priest, Cornelius, lad, bridegroom, beau, ?nerman, male, peacock, 
landlord, tiger, Fra?icis. 

2. Compose sentences personifying the following words in such 
way as to show gender: Rome, Columbia, ''Maine" (battle-ship), 
Spain, ocean, Tiber, earth, moon, sun, winter. May, December, and 
the planets Venus, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Mars. 



PERSON IN NOUNS. 

Definition. — Persons /;/ grammar are those relations and 
uses of Ivor ds by zvhich the speaker, the hearer, and the person 
or thing addressed are distinguished from one another. 



1'^ (GRAMMAR. §10 

Driinif ion. — llic Wv^^l /hf son is that 7'clatioii or use of a 
-ti'orii hv which it liciiotcs the speaker. 

I, Wiltiiiin Mclvinlcy, do hereby appoint, etc. We, the iincte? 
sia^ncii, etc, 

Ueflnitioii. — The second person is that relation or nse oj 
a word by wJiieh it denotes the person or tJiiiii^ addressed. 

Thou, God, seest me. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once 
again. 

Definition. — TJic t\\\v(\. person is that relation or use of a 
word by which it denotes the person or thing spo\i.en of. 
The pcoptc told the sexton and the sexton tolled the bell. 

22. Person of a Subject Xoun. — Strictly a noun used 
as the subject of a verb is in the third person, even 
though it names the speaker or the hearer. For one may 
speak about himself or his hearer as if each were a third 
party and absent. 

Thus, Brown may say of himself, "If Brown is summoned, 
he will surely go." " Is my old friend [addressing him], 
the doctor, still enjoying life ? " Here Brown, friend, and 
doctor are in the third person. 

23. Exercise. — Tell the person of each italicized word: 

1. Comrades, leave me here a little, while as yet 'tis early morn : 
Leave me here, and when you want me, sound upon the bugle- 
horn. 

2 O, mother, your boy that speaks to you now is so sorry; forgive 



'uin 



, and he will never vex his dear mother in the same way again. 

3. We are such sttiff" 
As dreams are made of, and our little ii/e 

Is rounded with a sleep. 

4, And /have loved thee, ocean ; and vciy Joy 
Of youthful sports was on thy breast to be 
Borne like thy bubbles onward : from a boy 
I wantoned with thy breakers — they to me 
Were a delight; *********** 

5l Who noble ends by noble means obtains, 

Or, failing, smiles in e.xile or in chains, 
Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed 
Like Socrates, that ?nan is great indeed. 



§ 16 . GRAMMAR. 13 

CASE IN NOUNS. 

24. Meaning of the Word *•*• Case." — The student has 
already learned that a noun or a pronoun may be related in 
a number of different ways to other words in a sentence; 
that is, it may fill various uses or functions. For example, 
a noun may be the subject, the predicate 7ioun, the object of a 
verb or of a preposition, and it may fill other offices. These 
several uses of nouns and pronouns in helping to express 
thought make up the cases m grammar. 

Among all the cases of English nouns, there is found only 
one real inflection or change from the ordinary simple form 
of the word — from the injiectional base. This is in the form 
by which ownership, origin, or adjunct is denoted ; such as, 
a boy's hat, the girVs story, Rome's greatness. Of the case 
relations of the noun, this is the one relation that may be 
known by its form; all other cases must be inferred from 
the way the noun is used — its relation to other words. 

The word case is from the Latin casus, which means ' ' a 
falling." In that language there were formerly .s-^^^^/z cases: 
of these, there was one that depended for its form on no other. 
This was the noviinative, the form that merely names. Since 
this case form could stand alone, as if erect and independent, 
while the others appeared only in sentential structure and in 
dependence on other words, the nominative was called the 
erect or uprigJit case {casus rectus). From it the others— the 
oblique cases — were formed ; they fell from it — were cases 
of it. From this notion that the other cases decline {lean 
aivay) from the nominative, came the word declension, 
which in grammar means an orderly arrangement showing the 
nominative or erect form and the oblique or declined cases. 

In the sense that case is a falling, the nominative is not a 
case at all ; but this curious use of the word case has been 
extended in grammar to include all the relational forms and 
uses of nouns and pronouns. 

Definition. — dx'^e in grammar is that form or use of a 
noun or pro)iouTi by ivhich its relation to other words in a sen- 
tence is shown. 



U GRAMMAR. - § IG 

ti5. NiimlKT of Cases. — Most oTammarians consider 
that English nouns have three cases: the nominative, the 
possessive, and the objective. These include all the func- 
tions or relations — about a dozen — that are filled by nouns 
and pronouns in English sentences. 

*iG. The Xominative Case. — The word fiotninafive 
means "naming." The singular of ever}' noun in the nom- 
inative case is the fonn that is always named in a dictionary 
where the word is to be defined, or where we merely mention 
the name; as, j?ian, tree, mountain. From this singular 
nominative, the plural nominative is formed by the rules 
already given. Thus, men, trees^ mountains, are the forms 
of plural nominatives. 

But since the objective forms of nouns are exactly like the 
nominative forms, both in the singular and in the plural, 
these cases must be recognized, not by their forms, but by 
their ivork or function in sentences. 

The most frequent and important use of the noun is in the 
relation of subjeet to a verb that predicates; that is, those 
verb forms that are called /"///Vd' — the verb forms that state, 
question, or command. 

[There are certain forms, not finite, called infinitives, par- 
ticiples, and verbal nouns ; such are, to see, to be seen, to 
have seen, having seen, seeing, etc. These verbals are not 
used by themselves to predicate, but they do duty as adjec- 
tives, adverbs, and nouns.] 

When a noun stands in a sentence as the subject of a finite 
verb, it is said to be in the nominative case. The nominative 
subject of a verb is the word that answers the question Who ? 
or What? 

The boy can swim. JJ'/io can swim ? The boy. The word do/ 
is, then, the subject of the sentence. 

Does the earth, rotate? Does luhat rotate ? The earth. 

All the ti*ains u-ill have gone. What will have gone ? The ti'ains. 

Besides this important use of the nominative case, there are 
several others, which will be explained in the proper place. 

Definition. — TJie nominative case is the for ni or tise of 
a zcord ill the relation of subject of a finite verb. 



§ 16 GRAMMAR. 15 

It should be tiiidcrstoud tliat the noiniiiativc case, although 
defined above as if employed in only one way, has several 
other uses besides that of standing as the subject of a finite 
verb* These, however, are of much less importance than 
the use as subject, and are not of very frequent occurrence* 
They will all be considered in the proper place. (See Art. 
31.) 

Definition. — The possessive case is the form or use of a 
tvord by which it denotes possession^ origin^ or adjunct. 

Possession. — The girl's book. The book belongs to the girl — is her 
property. 

Origm. — The sun's light. The light has its origin in the sun. 
The poet's rhyme. The sailor's story. 

Adjunct. — The boy's height. Height is a quality or an adjunct 
of a boy. The earth's equator. The river's banks. 

21, Remarks on the Possessive Case. — Besides the 
three relations mentioned above, there are several others 
that are denoted by the possessive case. The possessive 
case being a real inflection, however, there is no difficulty in 
knowing the case by its form. 

The inflected form is used mostly with the names of living 
beings. Thus, we may say, the horse's owner, but not, the 
tree's foliage; the snail's speed, but not, the train's speed; 
etc. For inanimate objects, it is better to use the uninflected 
noun with the preposition of; as, the top of the tree, the 
owner of the land, the speed of the train, etc. 

We very frequently speak of inanimate things as if they 
were real living agencies; in other words, we personify 
them. In such cases the inflected form of the noun is to be 
preferred to the prepositional phrase. 

The torrent' s/z/rj/. The ^toviiX\?'^ progress. The fire's hunger. 

There is, however, excellent authority for the use of the 
possessive case with the names of inanimate things. 

In the above expressions a noun in the possessive case takes 
the place of a prepositional phrase, and the latter being in 
ftmction an adjective, it is clear that a noun in the possessive 
case has the value of an adjective modifier. 



10 GRAMMAR. § l(j 

vSoiiic nouns lmkHiil,^ in s, x, ce, c'uul es take only the 
apostroplic in Llic possessive sini^ukir, in order U) avoid too 
many liissing- sounds; as, J/oscs' laws, Socralrs' death, for 
Ji'sits' sake, tor conscience' sake, Demosthenes' safely, Xerxes' 
army, the Sioux' defence, JUillioiis' g^rammar, Ganges' side. 

The possessi\-e should be formed in the usual way unless 
the offensive sound is very noticeable. 

Compound nouns add the sign of the possessive to the last 
element; as, tite Emperor of German fs tour, Smith and 
Brown s store. In the case of long compounds, it is, how- 
ever, generally better to avoid such possessives. For example, 
we should prefer, bj' the order of the commander-in-cJiief to, 
the commander-iti-cJiief's order ; the totir made by the Emperor 
of Germany, the store owned by, etc. 

28, The Objective Case. — The objective case is so 
named because its most frequent use is in the relation of the 
object of a verb or a preposition. A noun or a pronoun used 
as the object of a verb names that which receives the action 
performed by some actor. 

The boy struck the (I02:. The i^oliceman ar?'csfc(t the burglar. 
The teacher /rrr/j-tv/ her i>ui)ils. 

"When a noun or a pronoun is brought by a preposition 
into relation with some other word, the relation begins with 
the one word and ends with the other, very much as action 
begins with an actor and ends with that which receives the 
action. The preposition specifies and directs the rchition, 
just as a verb specifies and directs the action. Hence, the 
word in which the relation that is specified and directed by 
a preposition ends, is in the objective case. 

The object of a verb or of a preposition is the word that 
answers the question WJwm? or WJiat ? 

I sa7v the teacher. I saw luhom? The teacher. Teacher 
is, therefore, the object of the verb saw. 

Mary crossed the ocean. Mary crossed what? The ocean. 

The boy Avent with his father. The boy went with whom? His 
father. 

He leans atj^ainst the tree. He leans against what? The tree. 



§16 



GRAMMAR. 



11 



There are some other uses of nouns and pronouns in which 
they are said to be in the objective case. These will be 
explained later. The foregoing are, however, the most fre- 
quent uses of the objective case, and are usually referred to 
in the definition of this case. 

Definition. — T/ie oTDjective case is tJie form or use of a 
ivord in the relation of object of a verb or of a preposition. 

39. Declension of I^ouns. — The declension of a noun 
is an orderly arrangement of its cases in both the singular 
and the plural number. 

Singular. Plural. 
IN^oniinative girl girls 

Possessive girl's girls' 

Objective girl girls 

30, Exercise. — Write expressions containing the possessive case 
singular of the proper nouns, and the same case in both numbers of the 
common nouns in the following list: 

Thus, the horse s strength, the horses' strength; D. Apple ton &^ 
Co. ' JT publications. 

man servant 

boy preacher 

child wife 

shipmaster 

woman servant 

brother-in-law 

aide-de-camp 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


mouse 


mice 


Mary 


mouse's 


mice's 


Mary's 


mouse 


mice 


Mary 



comrade 


goose 


deer 


child 


calf 


robin 


lady 


hero 


fish 


fly 


ox 


witness 


woman 


mouse 


brother 


man 


mother 


thief 


chief 


wolf 


self 



Jones the hatter 
Cyrus the Great 
Claflin & Co. 
Grant and Lee 
Jack the Giant Killer 
John of Anjou 
Arnold the traitor 



FUNCTIONS OF THE CASES. 

31. Use of tlie Kominative Case. — The nominative 
case has fiv^e principal uses or functions in expressing 
thought. 

1. As Subject of a Finite Verb. — 

The teacher is sick. The liorse drew the load. The soldier 
viay have been killed. 

2. As Predicate. Noun. — The predicate noun always 
denotes the same person or thing as the subject. 

The diamond is a precious stone. Pie see/ned a seholai". (~Irant 
looked a. hero. Jones 7vas chosen sj)ealvcx% She -iValks a qiieen. 



18 GRAMMAR. § 10 

In these sentences, the same person or thing is denoted by 
each of the following" pairs of words: diamond^ stone; hi\ 
scJiolar; Grant, Jicro; Jones, speaker; she, queen. The verb 
placed between each pair unites them so as to form an asser- 
tion. 

Diamond is sio7ie. Grant looked a hcj-o. 

3. In Apposition WitJi Another Nominative. — This func- 
tion of a noun is very much like that of an adjective — it is 
explanatory and modifying. 

Grant, the general, ended the war. This is equivalent to 
General Grant ended the, ivar, in which general is a modifier of 
Grant. 

•4. x\s Independent. — In this construction, the nominative 
fills the office for which it is named — its nominating or 
naming function. A word so used has no grammatical rela- 
tion to other words. It stands in an independent relation 
and has no other use than merely to name some person or 
thing. This independence is of three varieties: 

{ix) By Address. — 

And, Sa.xon, I am Roderick Dhu. Study your lessons, childrefi. 

(t?) By Exclamation. — 

Hope! It makes the heart sick. Friendship ! There's no such 
thing. 

(r) By Pleonasm. — Strictly speaking, any noun or pro- 
noun that overfills a construction is pleonastic; for this is 
what the w^ord means. But pleonasm is the mere mention 
of a Boun or a pronoun, not in the way of address or exclama- 
tion, but as suggesting that about which the sentence treats 
more fully. It is a use for the sake of emphasis; the noim 
or pronoim is not the subject or object of a verb. 

The sea, — it is the greatest thing God ever made. The boy, oh, 
where was he ? Tears, idle tears, I know not what they mean. 

5. As Absohite. — This also is a kind of independent con- 
struction. It consists of a noun or a pronoun used with a 
participle to form a i^hrase that is usually the equivalent of 
a dependent clause. This phrase, although it is not a 
necessary part in the sentential structure, and may be 



3 



§ 16 GRAMMAR. 19 

omitted, generally adds some modifying circumstance — it is 
a modifier. 

Da^Nvn having appeared, we departed. = When dawn appeared 
(or At dawn) we departed. Our destmation having been reached, 
we went ashore. AutuHin coming on, the nights grew colder. 
Seeing the multitude, he went up into a mountain. 

Here having appeared modifies the meaning-of dawn just 
as an ordinary adjective might do ; having been reached is a 
modifier of destination; etc. 

32, Use of the Possessive Case. — The possessive case 
is generally regarded as having but one function in grammar. 
This is to denote possession or some similar relation. Its real 
use is to modify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun; for, 
when we ^^j John's hat, the effect produced upon the mean- 
ing of hat by the word. Joh7t's is exactly similar to that 
which would be produced if black were used with hat. 

33. Use of the Objective Case. — A word in the objec- 
tive case may be used: 

1. As Object of a Verb. — There are several varieties of 
the object complements of verbs. 

{a) Direct Object. — This is the most frequently used form, 
and is very easy to recognize. 

They sang a hymn. He earjied money. We saw the moon. 

{b) Indirect Object. — This use of a word is by many gram- 
marians called the dative case, that is, the case oi giving. It 
is generally equivalent to a prepositional phrase used as a 
modifier and consisting of a noun or pronoun preceded by 
to ox for. More exactly, the indirect object, with to ox for 
understood, forms an adverbial phrase modifying* the mean- 
ing of the verb. It is not an object of the verb, but of an 
tmderstood preposition. 

They taught the boy arithmetic — that is, to the boy. I bought the 
girl a book — for the girl. 

{c) Appositive Object. — A noun or a pronoun may have 
an appositive to explain or modify its meaning. As is the 
case with an appositive nominative, the explaining word and 
the word explained always denote the same person or thing, 



20 GRAMMAR. § lu 

He struck John, his brother. We visited New York, the 
iiieti'opolis of America. He killed the fawn, our pet, our 
darUii^. Paul appealed to Rome, the niisti'ess of the world. 

{d ) Factitive Object. — The factitive object was long 
classed by grammarians as a mere appositive object; that is, 
an objective placed near the direct object to explain its 
meaning, a function ven- similar to that of an adjective. 
Thus, in the two expressions, King Richard^ and, Richard 
the king we have the word king first an adjective and then 
an appositive noun ; but the works they do are very nearly 
the same. 

Now, there are some verbs that are followed by two objec- 
tives, one of which is the direct object; the other names 
something that seems to be made by the action expressed by 
the verb. This is called the factitive or made object (from 
facer e^ ** to make'), and, like an ordinary- appositive, it 
stands beside the direct object to modify or explain it. 

They made ////// teacher. The people elected Washington pi'esi- 
clent. The convention appointed the mayor ehairman. 

Here teacher names that which results from the action 
expressed by made; etc. 

The following diagrams will show the similarity of this con- 
struction to an ordinary appositive and to a predicate noun: 



d 



Faditive ofafecthe : (The\) [chose] her queen. 



(She) [was chosen] queen. 
Predicate noun: 



(She) [was] queen. 



J^ppogitioe objective: {Ee) [showed] his weapon, a knife. 



(r) Adverbial Object i^^e. — Certain words denoting time, 
measure, weight, distance, value, etc. are used in the objec- 
tive case to modify like adverbs. 



§ IG GRAMMAR. 21 

We went ^07ne and stayed a -wee^. He was six/<?^/ high. It cost a 
dollar. The hat is worth a shilling. The ship sailed last night. 
She weighs one hundred pou7ids. 

These adverbial objectives are generally remnants of prep- 
ositional phrases. Thus, the foregoing may be regarded as 
shortened forms of the following: 

We went {to) home and stayed {through or diirijig) a week. He 
was high {by or to the extent of) six feet. It cost {to the amount of) a 
dollar. The hat is worth {to the extent of) a shilling. Etc. 

2. As Object of a Preposition. — As we have seen, preposi- 
tions are used with nouns and pronouns to form adjective 
and adverbial phrases. The nouns and pronouns in such 
phrases are in the objective case. 

They live in the country. He believed in government of the 
people, /<9r the people, and by the people. He that is not with 
nie is against me. 

3. As Object of a Verbal. — There are certain verb forms 
that cannot by themselves predicate, but are used as adjec- 
tives or nouns. They preserve their verbal character enough 
to be modified as verbs are, and, when derived from transi- 
tive verbs, to take objects after them. Such objects are 
nouns or pronouns in the objective case, or expressions used 
as equivalents of nouns or pronouns. 

Seeing the mnltitude, he went up into a mountain. He was told 
to study his lesson. The man was thought to have robbed a l)ank. 
He was arrested for having stolen some fruit. Earnifig money 
is hard work ; spending it is very easy. 

Multitude is the object of the participle seeing^ and the 
whole phrase, seeing the multitude^ is a modifier of Jie. 

4. As Subject of a Verbal. — The verbals, since, like verbs,, 
they express action or state, always imply a subject. This 
is often not expressed, but when it is, it is generally in 
the objective case. Verbals that begin with to are called 
infinitives^ and they always have their subject in the objec- 
tive case. 

I told liiiH to go. They persuaded the boy to accompany them. 
We expected the lioiise to hai/e been finished before December. They 
found the old man sitting by her grave. It was hard for tliem ta 
etidiire the cold. 



22 GRAMMAR. § 16 

It will be noticed that these subjects of verbals are at the 
Scime time objects of prepositions or of predicating verbs. 

34. ExERCisK. — Of each noun in the following, state the case and 
tell its use or function: 

1. His father was a hero of the Revolution. 

2. Pizarro plundered and murdered the Inca of Peru. 

3. Believing in his innocence, the lawyer defended him. 

4. O that I were the viewless spirit of a lovely sound. 

5. Gold is by no means the most valuable metal. 

6. The diamond is mere crystallized carbon. 

7. Dare to do right, dare to be true, 
You have a work that no other can do. 

8. Death, the great leveler, comes to knock at every door. 

9. " Time, 1 have lost it; ah, the treasure" ; and he died. 

10. He brought his game, a deer, on his back. 

11. " My home ; I never had a home at any time in my life." 

12. The committee found him dictating letters to his secretary. 

13. They thought him a hero; they found him a coward. 

14. To follow the path of duty, to obey the monitor conscience, 
should be the aim of all. 

35. Exercise. — 1. Construct sentences each containing one of 
these verbs followed by a predicate nominative : was, seemed, appeared, 
lived, was considered. 

2. By using the following as verbs, make sentences containing a 
direct and a factitive object: name, thought, call, choose, consider. 

3. Write a sentence containing a nominative case absolute. 

4. Illustrate by sentences a nominative and an objective appositive. 

5. Write two sentences each illustrating the nominative case by 
pleonasm. 

6. Write two sentences each containing the adverbial objective 
construction. 

7. Make sentences and place them in diagram showing the differ- 
ence between an appositive objective and a factitive objective. 

8. Write sentences containing nouns used as the subjects, and 
others as the objects, of verbals. 



1 



PARSING THE XOTJX. 

36. Oi*al Pai*siii<2:. — A noun is parsed orally by stating 
in an orderly way its classification, its inflections, its func- 
tions, and its relations. To illustrate, let it be required to 
parse the nouns in the f;jllo\ving- sentence: 

The visitor was Richelieu, the minister of France. 



§10 



GRAMMAR. 



23 



Tisitor : it is a noun^ common^ thirds masculine^ singular^ 

nominative^ subject of " was." 

Richelieu : it is a noun^ proper^ thirds masculine^ singular, 
nominative, predicate noun, agrees in case with " visitor," and 
denotes the same person that is indicated by the subject. 

Minister : it is a noun, common, third, masculine, singular, 
nominative, in apposition to "Richelieu," the meaning of 
which it explains. 

France : it is a noitn, proper, third, neuter, singular, objec- 
tive, object of the preposition "of," with which it forms an 
adjective phrase modifying the meaning of "minister." 

In oral parsing, the reasons should at first be fully given ; 
later, they may be omitted as above ; and finally, it is enough 
to give only the most important facts. For example, with 
respect to the nouns parsed above, the pupil may say: 

Visitor : it is a common noun, nominative, subject of"' was. " 

Richelieu : it is a proper noun, the predicate nominative. 

Minister : it is a common noun, nominative, in apposition 
to the word "Richelieu." 

France: \i\s Si proper noun, object oi the preposition '*of.'* 



3*7. Written Parsing. — To illustrate a method of writ- 
ten parsing of the noun, let it be required to parse the nouns 
in the following selection: 

Here comes his body, mourned by Mark Antony ; who, though he 
had no hand in his death, shall receive the benefit of his dying, a place 
in the commonwealth. 



Noun. 


Class. 


Gender. 


Num- 
ber. 


Case. 


Relation. 


body 


common 


neuter 


sing. 


nom. 


subject of "comes" 


Mark Antony 


proper 


mascu. 


sing. 


obj. 


obj. of prep, "by" 


death 


common 


neuter 


smg. 


obj. 


obj. of prep, "in" 


benefit 


common 


neuter 


smg. 


obj. 


obj. oi verb "receive" 


dying 


verbal 


neuter 


smi;-. 


obj. 


obj. of prep, "of" 


I)', ace 


common 


neuter 


sinj;-. 


obj. 


apposition to "benellt" 


commonwealth 


common 


neuter 


sini^. 


obj. 


obj. of prep, "in" 



5i-i GRAMMAR. 



38, Exercise. — Parse the nouns in the following sentences : 

1. Can you tell me, John, whether there are lions in India ? 

2. Money, the root of all evil, is, however, the power that makes 
success and failure. 

;j. Columbus, fearing a mutiny, promised his men to return to Spain. 
4. There is a tide in the affairs of men, which, taken at the flood, 
leads on to fortune. 

0. The book cost a dollar and was sold for two dollars. 

6. 1 had got home to my little tent where I lay all night. 

7. Ah, gracious powers ! I wish you would send me an old aunt— 
a maiden aunt — an aunt with a lozenge on her carriage. 

8. They call him king of the coral isle, 
The lord of the tropic seas. 

9. A man beyond middle age entered, bearing the look of one that 
knew the world and was sure of his own course in it. 

10. The woman's cause is man's ; they rise or sink together. 

11. There stands not by the Ganges' side 
A house where none has ever died. 

12. I am so weary of dust and decay. 
Weary of flinging my soul wealth away. 

13. A man naturally feels himself superior to him that turns somer- 
saults, whether literal or literary. 

14. A dirge is a merrier thing by half 
Than such a soulless, senseless laugh. 




15. The unwearied sun from day to day 

Does his Creator's power display, 
And publishes to every land 
The works of an Almighty hand. 



DIAGRAIMS OF THE CASE CO]S^STRUCTIOI<i^S. 



MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 

39. In order that the student may become familiar with 
the various case constructions and with the method of repre- 
senting- them by diagrams, some model analyses are here 
given. 



$ 16 GRAMMAR. 25 

—J ! / \ f 1 = -N-^J/A^ 

1. Our midnight (visitor) [was] O'Connell, the great orator 



and reformer. 



r>,J^~r 



2. (Lazafus) [satl, a beggar at the gate of Dives, the rich man. 



3. (He) [looked] a gentleman from head to foot. 

I 1 I 

Explanation. — The words beggar ^iXv^ gentleman in 2 and 
3 are, like O' Connell in 1, predicate nominatives. 

4. The boy's (absence) [caused] ^ his mother, poor thing, much grief. 

* I— J f ~l~ I ^\ I - 

5. The (right) [being] difficult and distasteM, (he) [did] the wrong. 

Explanation. — The noun right is in the nominative case 
absolute, and it is, at the same time, the subject of beings a 
participle. It should be noted that most grammarians omit 
mention of this latter function of nouns and pronotms; but 
it is just as real as any other, although of little importance. 



/ \ r 1 -^ * -^ * 
6. The (vessel) [sunkj last night ten miles from shore. 

Explanation. — Night and miles are adverbial objectives 
modifying stink. The carets (/\) indicate the usual place of 
the preposition in adverbial phrases. 



7. Your sister, John ; (you) [resemble] your sister. 

Explanation. — Sister is in the nominative case by 
pleonasm, and John in the nominative case by address. 

40. Exercise. — Analyze the following sentences by diagram, and 
parse the nouns: 

1. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate. 



3n 



GRAMMAR. 



§ir, 



L'. Slic was tliiiikiiij;' then of her former l<»r(l. j^<»o(l soul that he was. 
'.}. The sleek and shining ereatures, — we hunt them for the beauty 
of their skin. 

4. Wild natures need wise eurbs. 

5. I know the way by which she went home yesterday. 

6. The storm having passed, the sea became peaceful. 

7. Are you my cousin of whose exploits I have so often heard ? 

8. If a mad dog bit your hand, my Lord, would you not chop off 
the bitten member? 

9. England; it is the land where might made right eight hundred 
years ago, 

10. They sang of what is wise and good and gracefuL 



TABI.E OF xor:ys. 



I Proper 



( 1. Particular 



I ^sed as CommoJi 
Class Xav:es\ 



\ames — Henry, Boston. 

The Mi I tons, the Ciceros. 



Xouns ■; '• ^'"^ ^^ \(p) Rational. —Rest, condition. 

II Common-: 2. Collecti^'c — Army, flock, cojivention. 

I 3. Abstract — Redness, honesty, discordance. 
1 4. Verbal— Writing, seeing, hearing. 



IXFI^ECTIOXS OF XOUXS. 



Gender 



If. 

c 


II 
NUMKER 


X ■ 


III 


M 


Person 




IV 




Case 



f 1. Mascu 
J 2. Femim 
I 3. Neuter 



line — Man, John, stag, Casar. 
ine — Girl, Dora, filly, Cleopatra, 
euter — Book, Boston, day. 
Common — Parent, wolf, fish. 



j 1. Singular — Boy, child, Danube. 
{ 'I. Plural— Boys, children, 6's. 

r 1. Pirst — I, John, am going. 

2. Second — Come, James, let us go. 

3. Third — The earth is a planet. 



''ominati^'c^John came. 



f 1. .^•, 

\ 2. Possessive — Mary's hat. 
I 3. Objective 



The boy is a scJwlar. 
The woman's hope. 
I saw the clouds from the door. 




GRAMMAR, 

(PART 4.) 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

1, The Function of the Adjective. — The adjective 
has been defined as a zvord used to modify tJie meaning of a 
noun or a pronoun. When, as the name adjective implies, 
this element is joined directly to a noun, the effect in each 
case is to restrict or limit to a particular number, or kind, 
or other group, the objects named by the noun. This is to 
modify or measure the noun in the extent of its application. 

Thus, every object answering a certain description is 
included by the noun 

tree. 

But when modifiers are joined to the noun, the number of 
denoted objects is reduced by excluding all except such as 
are: 

{a) Of a certain kind or quality ; as, tall trees, green 
trees, oak trees, evergreen trees, forest trees. 

{b) For particular use ; as, lumber trees, shade trees, 
fruit trees, sugar trees. 

(c) Of a certain number, definite or indefinite; as, six 
trees, several^ some, many, /^^^, trees. 

{d) In a certain condition of cJiange or action; as, dying 
trees, living, groiving, standing, fallen, chopped, trees. 

[e) Definitely pointed out ; as, the trees, those, yonder^ 
my, trees. 

In these and many other ways, the adjective enables us to 

§17 

For notice of the c<)pyriv:ht, see pa,ije iinniedialel v following tlie title pa^e. 



2 GRAMMAR. § 17 

separate the ()1)jcct oi" objects named l)y the noun from all 
others that we wish to consider. 

"^^ 'J'lio JMaee ol* the Adjective. — The adjective docs 
not always directly precede the noun as a mere modifier; it 
is often widely separated from the word wliose meaning it 
modifies. In every position, however, its function is to 
modify the meaning of a noun or pronoun, and from this 
use it gets its name. The placing of an adjective at a dis- 
tance from its usual position has the effect of emphasizing 
its meaning; but, although when so placed it is still a mod- 
ifier, it is something more, as is explained below. 

Considered with respect to position, adjectives are: 

1. Adjunctive — joined directly to the noun and prece- 
ding it; as, ^^^^'i^ weather, six tons, some money, tJiat house. 

Here the adjective modifies, and nothing more. 

2. Appositivc — placed iiea7% but used like a noun or a 
pronoun in apposition. 

Sad and silent^ the traveler sat by the roadside. He was condemned 
for crimes, real and supposed. Hopeful, C07ifident, the boy left home. 

3. Predicative — performing a direct part in predicating, 
and called, therefore, ?i predicate adjective. 

The tree is green. The sun is bright and s/ihiing. The boy looks 
pale and seems sick. 

In (3) the predication is actually made — that is, there is 
formal assertion; in (2) predication is strongly implied ; and, 
in (1) it is merely assumed or taken for granted. Thus, in 
the expression good and true stories, we asstune, as some- 
thing not disputed, that the qualities goodness and trueness 
characterize the stories of w'hich w^e speak ; in stories, good 
and true, the qualities are more than assumed. It is as if 
we said, stories that are good and true ; only we do not 
quite say it. But in T/ie stories are good and true, the pred- 
ication is actually made — we assert that the qualities are 
really possessed by the things named by stories. 

3, Adjectives Classified With Respect to Form. — 

Wlicn considered with respect to their form, adjectives 
may be: 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 3 

1. Proper or Common. 

{a) A proper adjective is one that is formed from a proper 
7107m; as, French, Miltonic, Parisian, Rhenish, Franco- 
Prussian. 

{b) A common adjective is one that is not derived from a 
proper noun ; as, true, fresh, lively, soul-stirring. 

Some adjectives derived from proper nouns are now treated 
as common adjectives, being written without initial capitals; 
as, herculean from Hercules, tantalizing from Tantalus, 
tita7tic from Titan, stentorian from Stentor, romantic from 
Roma, etc. 

2. Simple or Compound. 

(a) A simple adjective is one that consists of but one 
word element; as, sweet, lonely, extravagant, Spanish. 

{b) A compound adjective is one that is composed of two 
or more word elements; as, lifelike, homesick, rosy-fingered, 
all-wise, self-confident, never-to-be-forgotten, Russo-Greek, 
Spanish- American. 

3. Primitive or Derivative. 

{a) K primitive adjective is one that is not derived from 
a simpler word in actual use in our language; as, true, thin, 
sincere, sweet. 

{b) A derivative adjective is one that is derived from a 
simpler word used in the language; as, truly, homely, 
thinnest, insificere, sweetish, changeable. 

4. Derivation of Adjectives. — Adjectives are formed 
from simpler elements by means of prefixes and sufiixes. 
These may be joined to several classes of words as follows: 

1. Nouns. — Adjectives are formed from nouns by the 
addition oi sufiUxes ; such as, al, able, ous, ic, isJi, ful, y, en, 
ed, some, less, ly. He, an, ane, and many others. 

Examples are: natiomxl^ lovahle, f/rious^ tonic, c hi Idislij 
faithful, hearty, wooden, timberciX, burdensome, luckless^ 
motherly, puerile, urbsm, zcrbane, etc. 

2. Other Adjectives. — The most commonly used suffixes 
by which adjectives are formed from other adjectives are cr- 
est, ish, fold, some, teen (ten), ly, th, ty {ten). 



4 GRAMMAR. § 17 

The following are examples : soundev, saddest, siueetisYi, 
t/iretfolil, Av/^'some, t/iirteew, kindly, fifth., ninety, 

3. J\'rds. — Many adjectives are derived from verbs. 
Some of these are verbals used imchanged or with prefixes; 
as, groiuing, shor?i, shaven^ unfed, unloved, cultivated, fore- 
doomed^ prepaid, coiDitersigned, interviezved. 

Others are formed from verbs or verb stems by adding 
suffixes, native or classical; as, wakef\\\, exhaust\ess, tire- 
some, blowy, r^-Zable, credihle, urgent, considerate, 
credulows, composite, active, textile, static, etc. 

5. Compound Adjectives. — The number of compound 
adjectives is very great, and is constantly increasing. Classi- 
fied with reference to the elements of which they are 
composed, they are as follows: 

'Adjective; 2^9,, pale-blue, luhite-hot, red-orange. 
Verbal ; as, sloiu-vw^nng, high-stepping, good- 
Adjective + i looking, high-born. 

N'oun ; as, red - headed, keen - sighted, sharp - 
(^ to7igi(ed, rapid-fire, rosy-fitigered. 



Koun 



Adverb 



Adjective ; as, heart-whole, fancy free, love-lorfi, 
hopeful, sky-blue. 

Verbal ; as, foot-ivorn, heart-breaking, hand- 
made, hovie-breiued, ivy-covered. 

iNoun ; as, lio7i-hearted, cherry-lipped, o.x-eyed, 
deer-footed, Krag-forgensen. 

Adjective; as, all-powerful, over-honest, trtily- 

good, doubly-wicked. 
'\"erbal ; as, 7iever-ceasing, so-called, swftly- 

fiying, well-dressed, quick-witted, early-rising. 



Verb + I^oun ; as, breakneck, do-nothing, killjoy, breakbone. 

There are compound adjectives, consisting of combinations 
other than the foregoing, but these include the most 
important. Most compoimd adjectives are written with 
hyphens, but such as are of old and frequent use have 
acquired the solid form. When the student is in doubt 
whether or not to use a hyphen, he should consult a 
generally approved dictionary. 



■ 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 5 

6. Adjectives Classified With Respect to Use. — All 

adjectives modify, but most of them do so by denoting some 
quality or other in the thing indicated by the modified 
word. The others consist of several small groups that are 
known by special names. The following, however, is 
intended to include all adjectives; but it should be added 
that no classification so far made- is perfect. For example, 
many demonstratives denote quantity^ and many qualitatives 
and some quajttitatives have o. pointing-out or demonstrative 
value. The class in which an adjective belongs must be 
determined by its most conspicuous mark or function. 
Divided according to use or function, adjectives are: 

1. Qualitative. — These denote quality, and, for that 
reason, they are called by many grammarians qualifying 
adjectives. The number of this class of adjectives is 
immense, including all that denote qiialities perceived 
directly by the senses — sensible qualities — and qualities 
inferred by the mind from something perceived by the 
senses — rational qualities. 

1. Sensible {perceived). — Red, szveet, fragrant, loud, 
heavy, long, rougJi, left-handed, English, living, Caucasian, 

2. Rational [conceived). — Honest, true, gentle, thought- 
ful, well-beloved, affectionate. 

Each of the foregoing classes may be divided into common, 
proper, and verbal or participial; and these may be simple 
or compound, as already explained. 

II. Quantitative. — These are such as denote quantity 
either definite or indefinite; they relate to mass as well as to 
number. 

1. Definite. — Both, all, no, five, whole. 

2. Indefinite. — Any, few, some, several, divers, much, 
little. 

Adjectives of quantity that denote number are called 
numeral adjectives. Of these there are two classes: 
cardinal; as one, two, three, etc. ; and ordinal; as, first, 
second, third, etc. 



6 GRAMMAR, § 17 

III. Demonstrative. — These are adjectives used to 
point out; in the case of some of them, the effect is much 
the same as when one points with the finger. This class is 
named dcmotistrath't' from the fact that the Latin word 
dtmonstrare means *'to show," '* point out," or ** indicate." 

The demonstratives are subdivided as follows: 

1. Artie Us. — Of these there are two: a or <i//, called the 
indefinite article, and ///«-, the definite article. 

A is used before consonant sounds; as, a man, a house; 
an is used before rozcei sounds; as, an army^ an egg^ an 
iron, an onion, an urn. 

It should be observed that a word may begin with a vowel 
sound, but not with a vou*ei; as, herb^ heir, tumesty, etc. 

2. Pronominal Adjectives. — The student has already 
learned that words are sometimes used with double functions. 
The name, pronominal adjective, denotes that this class of 
words does duty both as pronouns and as adjectives^ As 
adjectives J they modify the meaning of nouns; as pronouns, 
they represent, refer to, or take the place of, nouns. Thus, 
in the expression, his hat, the word his points out which hat 
is meant, and at the same time stands for the name of the 
owner of the hat. If, for example, the hat belongs to John, 
his hat = Jolin's hat; and his and John's are alike in 
function. 

Again, nearly all of these words may stand alone instead 
of nouns: that is, they may be used as pronouns; as, Tliis is 
a tree. Some are living but many are dead. It is only 
when they are joined to a noun and modify its meaning 
that they are pronominal adjectives; as. That hat was 
formerly my property. Each man owes something to 
everj- man. 

The pronominal adjectives have been arranged in the 
following classes: 

(a) Ordinary Demonstratives. — These are called /r^wr^iw/- 
nal adjectives only because they are often tised as pronouns. 
But when they are joined to a noun to modify its meaning, 
they are really nothing more than adjectives in fimction. 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 7 

Still, even then, they are called pronominal adjectives. 
They are this^ that, these, those, yon, yonder, and such. 

(b) Interrogative. — There are only two words now used 
in this class: zuhich and ivhat. What money have you? 
Which book have you read ? 

These two words are used without interrogative value 
as mere demonstrative modifiers. Thus, Tell me ivhich 
book you want. I cannot say at zvhat hour the train leaves. 

{c) Possessive. — In this class are included my, mine, our, 
ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, hers, its, their, theirs, and 
whose. The last may be used either interrogatively or 
relatively ; as, Wliose house is that ? He is the man zvJiose 
letter came yesterday. 

The forms mine, thine, ours, yours, his, hers, and theirs 
are not possessives in the usual sense; for, while they do 
indeed denote possession, they can scarcely be said to be in 
the possessive case, since they can be used as the subject of 
a verb or as the object of a verb or a preposition. Mine is 
to yours exactly as Jiis is to hers. They can also be used 
either as singular or plural. His ^vere all dear, but oiirs is 
not. 

If hers means Ann's book, it does the work of both words. 
By its form it denotes possession, but its real case will 
depend on its actual use. It is never possessive both in 
form and use. 

{d) Indefinite. — Such pronominal adjectives 2iS point out, 
but not definitely, belong in this class, which includes about 
fifty words. Some of them are certain, another, few, less, 
more, otJier, sundry. 

The following, when used with nouns, are called distribu- 
tives, because they imply separate and individual attention 
to the persons or things named by the nouns they modify: 
eacJi, every, eitJier, neitJicr. 

<• Exercise. — Mention the adjectives in the following sentences, 
give the class as determined by the use or function of each, and tell 
what each adjective modifies: 



8 GRAMMAR. § 17 

1. The way was long, the wind was cold. 

2. Soft and sweet, like the murmur of distant waters, was her voice 
from the meadow. 

;}. At last my eyes could see a woman fair, but awful as this round 



liite moon o'erhead. 



4. The gray sea, and the long black land, 
And the yellow half-moon, large and low, 
And the startled little waves that leap 

In fiery ringlets from their sleep ; 

Then I gain the cove with the pushing prow, 

And quench its speed in the slushy sand. 

5. The youth with many a merry trick goes singing on his careless 
way. 

0. • Far off, three mountain tops, 

Three silent pinnacles of aged snow. 
Stood sunset-flushed; and dew'd with showery drops, 
Up-clomb the shadowy pine above the woven copse. 

7. Look — how round his straining throat 
Grace and shifting beauty float ; 
Sinewy strength is in his reins, 

And the red blood gallops through his veins — 
Richer, redder, never ran 
Through the boasting heart of man. 

8. Sweet bird that sing'st away the early hours 
Of winters past or coming, void of care; 
Well pleased with delights which present are, 

Fair seasons, budding sprays, sweet-smelling flowers. 

8. E.XERCiSK. — 1. By using suffixes, convert the following nouns 
into adjectives: friend , fog, virtue, truth, /lonie, burden, year, awe, 
brass, flax, sense, child, feather , fear , demon. 

2. From the following adjectives form other adjectives by means 
of suffixes: clear, sick, lone, nine, black, comic, glad, weak, blithe, 
grim, scant, droll. 

3. Form compound adject i7>es as follows, five of each, by combining 
{a) two adjectives; {b) an adjective and a noun; (c) an adjective and 
a 7'erbal. 

4. Illustrate the following by five compound adjectives for each: 
(a) noun + adjective ; {b) noun -f verbal; (c) noun + noun. 

5. Form five compound adjectives for each of the following: 
(a) ad-'crb + adjective; {b) adverb 4- verbal. 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 



IIS^FLECTIOX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



COMPARISON^ OF ADJECTIVES. 

9, The pronominal demonstratives this and that take the 
inflected forms these and those to denote the plural number. 

Singular. — This man, that mountain. 
Plural. — These men, those mountains. 

With these exceptions, adjectives have but one inflection, 
which is called comparison. Qualitatives — adjectives that 
denote quality either sensible or rational — are, most of them, 
inflected for degrees of the quality denoted. The qualities 
by means of which we distinguish one thing- from another 
are generally present in different degrees or amounts among 
the things having those qualities. Thus, we may say of one 
thing that it is large, or pretty, or beautiful; of another, that 
it is the larger, \h.e prettier, or the more beautiful oi two; of 
a third, that it is the largest, the prettiest, or the most 
beautiful of three or more. 

Such adjectives as are compared or inflected for quality 
have three degrees of comparison: XhQ positive, the compara- 
tive, and the superlative. 

But many adjectives that denote quality are not capable 
of different degrees. These of course are not inflected — they 
are incomparable. These may, in general, be known by 
their meaning. Some of them are : 

1. Adi]eQ.iiYe^ denoting geo7?tetrical magnitudes; as, round, 
square, cubical, circular, triangular , angular, linear, equi- 
lateral, spherical, straight. 

If, for example, anything is really round or square or tri- 
angular or cubical it cannot be any more or any less so. 
Such words then cannot in strictness be compared, yet it 
is often done by careless writers, and often by classical 
authors, and often for apparently good reasons. 

2. Adjectives with a negative clement, which may be a 
prefix denoting the absence of the quality indicated by tlie 



10 GRAMMAR. § 17 

rest of the word; as, \\\conccivabli\ wrvseeii^ fy^dainaiitine^ 
xxchromatiCy Vivcrst\ \^iiora)it^ illicit, \w\inatu?'i\ 

The negative element may be final ; as, hopeless, Jiarniless. 

3. Adjectives denoting quality not capable of increase or 
(liininiition ; as, perfect, complete, absolute, infinite, .ever- 
lasting, dead, asleep, satisfied, celestial, divine, human, 
viaterial, golden, weekly, eternal, endless. 

The student should note, however, that many adjectives 
not really comparable are inflected in common, and even in 
classical, usage. Thus, it is very common to meet more 
complete, most perfect, most excellent, more divine, most 
hopeless, etc. It is usually better to avoid expressions that 
cannot be defended. Few writers are, like Shakespeare and 
Milton, great enough to be above literary law and usage. 

4. Latin comparatives used as ordinary English adjectives 
cannot be compared; as, anterior, superior, inferior, senior, 
junior, prior. These comparatives are usually followed by 
to, while ordinary English comparatives require than. Thus, 
prior to, earlier tliaii ; inferior to, worse than. 

10. The Positive Degree. — The objects that we know 
and have names for we become acquainted w4th through 
their qualities or through their relations to other things. 
Thus, when we say orange, the word calls up in the mind 
certain ideas of shape, size, color, taste, smell, etc. We know 
it by its sensible qualities. 

Again, honesty is the name of a rational quality belonging 
to a man's conduct when related in a certain way to other 
human beings. If man habitually acts so and so under par- 
ticular circumstances, his conduct illustrates some quality, 
as honesty, and we speak of him as an lionest man. 

Now, it is by means of these qualities, sensible and 
rational, and by the various relations among things, that we 
are able to recognize objects and distinguish them from one 
another. By \he,\r differ eyices and resemblances, and by their 
relations, and in no other way, we become acquainted with 
them. 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 11 

But before we can say that anything is large^ for example, 
we must have a notion of average size for objects of that 
kind. This notion we get by experience in comparing many 
things of that class. When one says, a large house, tret\ 
aniinaly the expression implies that he has seen and com- 
pared many houses, many trees, many miimals, and that 
he has in his mind a general notion or type with respect to 
the size of each kind of thing mentioned. This type is not 
often the same with different persons, for it is derived from 
experience, and this is very various. The wider the experi- 
ence, the more valuable the type. 

This typical notion of quality is the positive degree of 
that quality. It is expressed by the simple uninflected form 
of the adjective; as, wise, sorry, red, pale. 

Deflnition. — The positive degree of an adjective is the 
form or use of it that implies the comparison of one thing or 
group of things ivith many others of the class. 

11. The Comparative Degree. — In the use of an 

adjective in the positive degree, the comparison is only 
implied ox taken for granted; in the comparative degree, the 
comparison of one thing with another must actually be made. 
Only tzvo objects or tivo groups of objects are considered — 
one having a certain quality, and the other having it in a 
higher or lower measure or degree. Thus, one thing may 
be siveet or pretty or long or small, and the other sweeter, 
prettier, longer, or smaller than the first. An adjective so 
used is in the comparative degree. 

Definition. — The comj^arative degree of an adjective 
is the form or use of it by whicJi a comparison witJi respect 
to some quality is made between t^vo things or groups of 
things. 

A girl i>rettier than my cousin. , 

{less ) 
Y valuable kottse of the two. 
more \ 

{less ) 
>■ satisfactory collection than mine. 



12 GRAMMAR. § 17 

12, The Superlative IJe^ree. — When the superlative 
degree of an adjective is used, the least number of objects or 
groups of objects considered is //trr^. One of them, as com- 
pared with the others — two or more — is seen to have the 
liiglicst or ^z«^i\i7 degree of some quality; and, to denote this, 
a form or use of the adjective known as the superlative 
degree is required. This degree also, like the comparative, 
requires an actual comparison. At least tJiree pretty or good 
or little objects must be compared before we can say that one 
of them is Xhc prettiest, the l)est, the least. The word superla- 
tive means "surpassing," "above or beyond all others." 

Deflnitiou. — The superlative degree of an adjective is 

the form or use of it by luJiich a comparison with respect to 

some quality is made amougtlivee or more things or groups 

of things. 

( least ) 
The X J- A^aluable house. The prettiest girl. 

13, llules for Comparing Adjectives. 

I. Adjectives of *^\\q syllable are compared as follows: 

-p .-f - J*-'^* = eonii^arative ; as, bright, bright^v, 
\ est = suijerlative ; as, sfnooth, smoothest, 

II. Adjectives oft^xo or more syllables usually take the 
adverbs more or less before the i>ositive to form the com- 
parative, a?id most or least to form the superlative. 

more) ... .. \)norc\ . ^.^ , 

, _ V + positive = comparative; as, ^ ^beautiful. 

most/ ... , ^. \most\ , ^.^ J 

leastf "*"1^^^^ ^^'^ ^ superlative; as, j^^^^^j-^^f^/^////^/. 

III. Special Rule. — Adjectives of two syllables ending in 
y, and many in o^v^ and e, usually add er and est to the 
l)ositive to form, respectively, the comparative and the 
siii)erlative. 

\ comparative ; as, lovcliQ>v, hotiev^ sorrier^ 
{ easzev, ajigriiiv. 

\ superlative ; as, /o7U'//est, holiest, sor- 
( ;'/est, easiest, angriest. 



holy 


fe... 


sorry 


■ + -I 


easy 


,e..,.-. 


angry . 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 13 

^ r , _ j comparative ; as, poltiev^ ynellowev^ nar- 

"^ ^11 ~ \ roTuer, s/mp/er, hollow^v. 

narrow ^+ ^ ^superlative; as, /<?/zVest, mellow^^t^ 

^ [ ~ ] narrowest, simplest^ kollowest. 



14. General Principle. — Many other adjectives of tzvo 
syllables are compared with er and est, whe?t to do so does 
not offend the ear. 

The preferable form of comparison is largely dependent 
on usage, and in nearly all cases this may be determined by 
the ear. Harshness of sound or difficulty of pronunciation 
is always sufficient cause for rejecting the regular compari- 
son — that by er and est. 

It should be added that the sentential use of an adjective 
has much to do with its comparison. If an adjective is 
joined directly to a noun, the preferable comparison is by er 
and est^ if euphony permits; but if the adjective is used in 
the predicate or like a noun in apposition, comparison by 
more and most or by less and least is to be preferred, espe- 
cially in poetry. 

A form more fair and a face more sweet. Surely, surely, slumber 
is more sweet than toil. A fearsome sound, most weird and strange, 
was heard. The wind breathes low with inellower tone. He stooped 
to touch the loftiest thought. 

The same is true when not comparison, but only a high or 
a low degree of a quality is intended ; as, Most weary seemed 
the sea = Very zueary, etc. 

15. Modifleatious in Spell injJT. — 1- Adjectives cndiirr 
in e silent omit the c before er and est; as, abL\ abler, 
ablest. 

2. Final y preceded by a consonant is changed into i ; as, 
gaudy, gaudier, gaudiest. 

3. A final consonant preceded by a short accented voivel 
is doubled before er and est ; as, slim, slimmer, slinimcst ; 
sad, sadder, saddest. 



14 



GRAMMAR. 



n: 



li>. Iri«egiilarC 


'oiiiparisou. — 


The following adjectives 


are must of them 


of 


very frequent 


use, and are irregular in 


comparison : 








Positive. 




Comparafiz'e. 


Superlative. 


bad. ill. evil 




worse 


worst 


far 




farther 


farthest 


little 




less 


least 


many, much 




more 


most 


old ' 




older, elder 


oldest, eldest 


forth (adv.) 




further 


furthest 


fore 




former 


foremost, first 


late 




later, latter 


latest, last 


hind 




hinder 


hindmost 


nigh 




nigher 


nighest, next 


[neath] 




nether 


nethermost 


[out] 




outer, utter 


5 outmost, outermost, 
i utmost, uttermost 


[up] 




upper 


upmost, uppermost 


[in] 




inner 


inmost, innermost 


good 




better 


best 



17. Parsing: the Adjective. — To parse an adjective, 
the student should mention: 

1. Its Class. — This involves stating its class as qualitative^ 
quantitative^ or demonstrative. If it is qualitative, it may 
be sensible or rational; if quantitative, it may be definite, 
indefinite, or numeral; if numeral, it may be cardinal or 
ordinal. If it is demonstrative, it may be an artiele either 
definite or indefinite; or it may be a pronominal, and if so, 
it is ordinary, interrogative, possessive, or indefinite. 

2. Its Comparison. — State whether or not it is compared. 
If it is compared, give its comparison, and say in what digree 
it is found. 

3. Its Use. — State what it modifies, and whether it is an 
adjunctive, a predicative, or an appositive adjective. 

Let it be required to parse the adjectives in the following 

sentence : 

But ho thought of his sister, proud and cold. 
And his mother, vain of her rank and gold. 

His: an adjective, demonstrative, pronominal, not compared, 
and, as a mere adjunct, modifies sister. 



i 



I 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 15 

Proud: an adjective^ qualitative^ rational; compared by 
er and est; it is in the positive degree, and is an appositive 
modifier of sister. 

Cold, vain : (parsed exactly like proud). 

Her: (parsed like his). 

18. Adjective Equivalents. — As has already been 
explained, the adjective function may be filled by sentential 
elements other than ordinary adjectives. 

1. By a verbal; as, a living tree, coal to sell^ a story to 
be believed., etc. 

2. By a prepositional phrase; as, a letter from home., a 
Q.WVQ for lisping., a ^2iY for planting trees, the apples in the 
cellar. 

3. By a clause; as, a tree that is alive, a story that 
should be believed, a man luhose father zuas in the Revolution, 
a voter when he became a man. 

4. By a noun in the possessive case ; as, Johns liat, a 
motJier's care. 

19. Expansion of Adjective Elements. — Almost any 
adjective word element may be expanded into a phrase or 
even into a clause. 

A summer day = a day iii sumtner. 

A kind act = an act of kindness = an act tlzat was kind. 
A memorable event = an event io be remejnbered = an event 
t/iat should be remembered. 

It is evident, therefore, that phrases and clauses used as 
adjective modifiers may generally be condensed into single 
v^ords ; and, inasmuch o.^ force is gained by brevity, we should 
prefer the shorter forms tmless there are good reasons for 
using the longer. 

20. Uses of Adjective Phrases and Clauses.— -We have 
seen that an adjective may be a mere adjunct, a complement 
of the predicate, and that it may be used appositively to add 
some fact or circumstance, or to explain the meaning of 
something that precedes. 



IG GRAMMAR § 17 

The same is true of adjective plwascs and clauses. 

Adjunctive or Restrictive. Predicative. 

I demanded 1 f high. 

The price -j in New York j- was -! beyond our means. 

I that was demanded j i what we promised to pay. 

Appositive or Coordinate. 
The cat, which is a relative of the lion, is a predatory animal. 
The lady, icho was very pretty, secured the position. 
The price, which of course we paid, was absurdly high, 

Appositive or eoordinate clauses are distinguished from 
adjunctive and restrictive clauses by being set off by 
commas. A fuller treatment of clauses will be found in 
another part of this work. 

21. Exercise. — In the following, parse the adjectives, and point 
out the adjective phrases and clauses ; tell which are appositive, which 
predicati-i'C, and which adjunctive; state also what each modifies. 

1. This murderous chief, this ruthless man, 
This head of a rebellious clan, 

Hath led thee safe. 

2. Gentleness, the characteristic mark of the true gentleman of the 
old school, distinguished his every act, even the most trifling. 

3. The church that stood by our old-time schoolhouse is in ruins. 

4. In their ragged regimentals, stood the old Continentals, yield- 
ing not. 

5. The three stood calm and silent, and looked upon their foes, 
And a great shout of laughter from all the vanguard rose. 

6. Alone stood brave Horatius, but constant still in mind — 
Thrice thirty thousand foes before, and the broad flood behind. 

7. Tlie emperor there, in his box of state. 

Looked grave ; as if he had just then seen 
The red flag wave from the city gate, 
AVhere his eagles in bronze had been. 
8.' He that gives up the smallest part of his secret has no control 
over what remains. 

9. The experience that teaches us to govern our own spirits is the 
best of all training. 

10. O, a dainty plant is the ivy green, 

That creepeth o'er ruins old ; 
Of right choice food are his meals, I ween, 
In his cell so lone and cold. 



§1^ 



GRAMMAR. 



17 



dry 


sincere 


wry- 


guilty 


shy 


haughty 


sly 


common 


spry 


lovely 


33. 


Exercise. 



remote 


faithful 


deadly 


morose 


awkward 


irate 


wholesome 


complete 


tardy 


discreet 



33. Exercise. — Determine by the ear or by a dictionary the 
approved comparison of the following words, and note the modifica- 
tions of spelling: 

noble 

curious 

precious 

wealthy 

swarthy 

-Compare such of the following adjectives as 
admit comparison, and explain why each of the others does not: 
golden empty ultimate perfect humane 

entire final erect wooden unanswerable 

English prone false universal friendless 

spherical dead extreme eternal infallible 

34, Other Methods of Comparison. — The regular 
comparison by annexing er and est is usually called an inflec- 
tion^ although, it is really a species of derivation. Of the 
method by means of the adverbs morc^ most, and less, least, 
it should be remarked that this is in no sense an inflection, 
and that there seems no very clear reason why grammarians 
should have selected these particular adverbs to use in com- 
paring adjectives; for there are a great many other adverbs 
that modify with more definiteness ; as, somewhat, slightly^ 
very, quite, extremely, exceedingly, positively, decidedly, 
barely, merely, only, rarely, occasionally, temporarily, etc. 
All these are useful, and the student should have a ready 
command over a good variety of them. Not only are adverbs 
used for this purpose of comparison, but adverbial phrases and 
clauses also, when greater precision of degree is required. 

\^ pretty, exceptionally, tolerably, often, excess- 
\ ively, frequejitly, charmingly, surprisiiigly, 
I coldly, de light/ ttlly, guardedly, finally, 
y refreshitigly, truly, 
in school, i?t manner, at dinner, towards the 
aged, in speech, at times, from early train- 
ing, in taking leave, by instinct, from policy, 
^ to excess, with an object, from habit, 
if he is in the mood, when he can afford to be 1 
so, although he is poor, when he chooses to be, \ 
where there is inerit, when he should be generous. 
otherwise, to those whom he loves, in a way 
that gives no offe7ise. 



Words 



Phrases 



Clauses 



^ cordial. 



polite. 



18 



GRAMMAR. 



17 



TAliT.i: OF THE AD^TECTIVE. 






9 

03 



l\ 



r Simple — good, wise, happy. 

- Compoujid — four-handed, bhie- 

I eyed. 

\ Simple — Russian, English. 
/ Compound — Anglo-American. 

r Simple — amusing, pleasing. 
Particii'ial ■{ Covipoiuid — life-giving, wool- 



CoMMON 



Proper 



gathering. 



' Common — whole, no, enough, 
both, all. 



1. Definite 



Niimeral- 



r Ca7'ditial — c 
-^ Ordinal — fii 



one, SIX. 
Ordinal — first, 
sixth. 



r Common — some, much, little, 



2. Indefinite ^ 



1. Article 



Pronominal 



any. 
Numeral — any, few, some, 

several, divers. 
\ Dejitiitc — the. 
( Indefinite — a, an. 

[{(I) Commo7i — this, these; that, 

those; yon, yonder. 
{h) Interrogative — which ? 

what ? 
{c) Indefinite — each, either, 

certain, else, sundry. 
{d) Possessive — my, thy, his, 

her, their. 



TITF. PROXOUX. 

25. The Function of the Prononn. — The pronoun 
has been described as a word used instead of^ or as a sub- 
stitute for ^ a noun. This description comes from the literal 
meaning-of the word /r^//^?/;/ (/r^, "for," 7ioun^ "a name"), 
but this definition is not exactly true of all the pronouns. 
When JoJin says of himself, I see, the meaning is somewhat 
different from what it would be if he should say John sees. 
In the former case, /represents the speaker, and shows by 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 19 

its form that it does so: in the latter example, John may 
denote the speaker, but nothing about the form of the word 
denotes that it does, as is the case with /. 

When of himself and Henry, to whom he speaks, he says 
We see^ it is not equivalent to John and Henry sec. But if 
the pronoun were an exact substitute for a noun, these pairs 
of sentences would be exact equivalents. By its fornix I 
denotes the speaker but gives no hint of who he is — it shows 
only that somebody, present and known without being 
named, is speaking. It would serve equally well if the name 
of the speaker were unknown, or even if he had no name. 

In like manner, 

We = I+jou (the speaker + the listener), and, 

IVe = I -\- yoii + he (the speaker + the listener + Henry), etc. 

In this last case, Jie is a real substitute for a noun, hut j/ou 
and / are not. Hence, 

/ denotes that some one, whose name is unknown or does 
not need to be known, is in t/ie relation of speaker. 

We denotes that some one is speaking for himself and for 
others that have been referred to or are present. What their 
names are is generally a matter of no importance. 

You denotes some one in the relation of listener to some 
one speaking, and it is used whether the listener's name is 
known or not. 

He, she, they, etc. are real substitutes for names. 

It appears, therefore, that the definition usually given for 
the pronoun is objectionable from the fact that it does not 
exactly describe the functions of all the pronouns. Doubt- 
less, however, it is the best that can be devised. Perhaps 
the definition already given is somewhat less open to objec- 
tion than that usually met with in the grammars. 

Definition. — A pronoun is a zvord that denotes persons 
and tlmtgs without naming tJieni. 

26. The Antecedent of a Pronoun. — Every pronoun 
denotes the name of some person or thing, or it is a substi- 
tute for such a name. This name is the antecedent of the 
pronoun. The name antecedent means "going before," the 



20 GRAMMAR. § 17 

implication being- that the name denoted occurs in the sen- 
tence before the pronoun that denotes it. Such is usually, 
but not always, the case. Thus, in the sentence, JoJui 
resolved that lie would earn liis 7;/^;/^j before he would 
spend it, the pronouns Jie and Jiis follow the antecedent 
JoJiii. The same is true of it in respect to ino)icy. But in 
the sentence. Who discovered the Pacific Ocean? the antece- 
dent of ivJio is inquired for and must be found in an answer 
to the question, Balboa discovered it. The antecedent of it 
is, however, really antecedent in position. 

Moreover, the pronouns /, wc^ me, ns, yoii^ and all others 
denoting the speaker or the listener, can scarcely be said to 
have antecedents, since, as we have seen, they are not 
strictly substitutes for nouns; they denote persojis or tilings 
rather than take tJie place of names, and an antecedent is a. 
ivord or an expression, not a person or a tiling. In the sen- 
tence, / hurt myself, neither of the pronouns has an antece- 
dent word; each represents a person, but so far as the 
reader knows or the sentence indicates, the person denoted 
by the pronouns has no name, or, if he has, it need not be 
known, 



CliASSES OF PROXOTJN^S. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

27. Function of the Personal Pronoun. — Although 
the number of pronouns is small, they are divided into sev- 
eral classes, which are usually grouped under five heads: 
personal, relative, interrogative, demonstrative, and indefi- 
nite. The personal pronouns are those that by their form 
indicate persons — the speaker, the hearer, or the person or 
thing spoken about. 

{a) The speaker; as, /, me, mine, we, etc. 

{b) The person addressed; as, thou, you, thine, yours, etc. 

{c) The person or thi^ig spoken of; as, he, him, she, them, 
etc. 

The words my, thy, our, your, his, her, its, and their, when 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 21 

followed by a noun whose meaning they modify, are gener- 
ally called pronominal adjectives; as, my work, its safety, his 
neglect, tJiy duty, etc. 

38. Absolute Possessive Pronouns. — The pronouns 
inine^ thine, his, Jiers^ ours, yours, and theirs, when used as 
equivalent to a noun with a pronominal modifier, are called 
absolute possessive pronoims; as, mine and yours are 
better than his and hers. 

These pronouns, although th.ej 6.enoiQ possessioji, are never 
used in the possessive case, and they are either singular or 
plural. Thus I may speak of my boy or iny boys as mine. 
By absorbing the possessives viy, thy, etc., they take into 
their meaning the idea of possession, but their function is 
always nominative or objective. 

If mine were yours, you would have more than all theirs. 
She gave hers for his and ours. 

39. Compound Personal Pronouns. — Certain of the 
personal pronouns annex self or selves to form compound 
personal pronouns: 

our 1 
self your \ selves 

them \ 

These pronouns, in either the nominative or the objective 
case, are usually in apposition to some other word ; or they 
are intensive and have the effect of emphasis. When in 
apposition, they are usually set off by commas. 

I, myself, will go. They attacked the king himself. 

They are used reflexively also ; that is, denoting the same 
person or thing as the subject, and as the object of a verb or 
preposition, or as ^predicate nominative. 

I hurt myself. A house divided against itself Richard is himself 
again. 

Both the nominative and the objective case are shown in 
the following from Tennyson : "And I, myself, sometimes 
despise myself.''' 



my 


hiin 


thy 


her 


your 


it 



22 



GRAMMAR. 



§17 



The personal pronouns arc sometimes used reflexivcly; as, 
Get ihee gone. I did repent i:ie. I do remember 7)ie that in my 
youth, etc. 

Self or selves may be used as a noun preceded by the pro- 
nominal modifier own; as, 

To your own self\)Q. true. We saw the giant's own self. 



decl.ensiox of the personal. pronouns. 

Denoting the First Person. 

Sill git I ar. Plurah 

Nommath'e I we 

Possessive my, mine our, ours 

Objective me us 

Denoting the Second Person. 

Singular. Plural, 

JKominative thou, you you, ye 

Possessi7'e thy, thine, your your, yours 

Objective thee, you you 

Denoting the Third Person. 

Singular. Plural. 





Masculine. 


Feminine. 


A^euter. 




No7ninati7'e 


he 


she 


it 


they 


Possessive 


his 


her, hers 


its 


their, theirs 


Objective 


him 


her 


it 


them 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

30. runction of the Relative Pronoun. — The rela- 
tive or conjiinetive pronouns have double functions in sen- 
tences: they stand for a noun or an equivalent of a noun, 
and thev connect clauses. 



My father died yesterday. \ 

My father was a lawyer. ) 
This dog is for sale. 

This dog gained the first prize. 

This man owns the house. \ 

+ 
Jack built the house. ) 



My father, Avho died yesterday, was 
a lawyer. 

_ ( This dog, ^wliich. gained the 
~ 1 first prize, is for sale. 

This man owns the house that Jack 
built. 






§ 17 GRAMMAR. 23 

In the first sentence zvho stands for my father^ and it con- 
nects the two clauses ; it is besides the subject of died. In 
the second sentence the function of wJiich is exactly similar 
to that of who in the first sentence. TJiat^ in the last sen- 
tence, connects the clauses and is the object of built; this is 
because it takes the place of the house in the second of the 
united clauses. The words father^ dog., and house ^ to which 
the pronouns relate, are called antecedents — meaning words 
that go before : father is the antecedent of ivho ; dog., of 
zvhich ; house ^ of that. 

31. The Simple Relative. — The simple relative pro- 
nouns are zvho., which, ivhat., and that. 

"Who is used for persons, and for animals and things per- 
sonified — that is, spoken of as if they were persons. It is 
inflected for case, but has the same form in both the singular 
and the plural. 

Nom, , who; Julius Csesar, who invaded Britain, soon returned to 
Gaul. 

Poss., whose; Alexander, whose father was Philip, was taught by 
Aristotle. 

Obj., whom; Napoleon, whom all France loved, died at St. Helena. 

Whicli is used for animals and for things zvithout life, 
although it was formerly used for persons ; as, Our Father, 
which art in Heaven. Which is not inflected either for num- 
ber or case, but whose is sometimes used as its possessive 
case ; as, The jewels, zvhose value was great, were seized by 
the sheriff. This usage, however, is condemned by many 
authorities, who prefer of zvhich to whose when the reference 
is to anything without life. 

Nom., which; The telephone, w^zV/^ was once merely curious, is now 
indispensable. 

Poss. , \whose'] ; We heard a noise the cause of which we could not 
determine. There were many horses whose owners had been killed. 

Obj., which; He solved the problem which we found in Euclid. 
[We found which. Which is the object of found.] 

But zvhose should be preferred to of zvhich in cases of per- 
sonification; that is, when inanimate things are spoken of 



24 GRAMMAR. § 17 

as if acting; in the manner of persons or other intelb'gent 
living- agents. 

The earth, Il'/iosc treasures are for man's benefit, etc. They sought 
go/if, whose blight has been upon men, etc. 

That is the most useful of all the relatives, being- a sub- 
stitute for either zk.'Jio or n'hic/i. It is used in both the singu- 
lar and the plural. 

The wan tliat hath not music in him, etc. 

The ships that pass in the night. 

The cat that killed the rat that ate the malt. 

This relative differs from luho and icJiicJi by not being 
used immediately after a preposition. Thus we may say, 

• r Avith 7uho»i I went (not Avith that). 
The f/ian \ t)y luhom it was done. 

[ throug-h li'hose agency, etc. 
f ill which we delighted. 
The verse \ by whose music we were charmed. 

t ag:aiiist which objections were urged. 

Yet we have, I have sinned in tJiat I have betrayed inno- 
cent blood (/// tJiat — in this that, etc.). When the relative 
stands apart from the preposition, that may be used for luho 
or uhich ; as, 

( that ) 
This IS the man -I - 1 referred to (to whom). 

( whoin j 

Here is the tree -| - was sijokcn of {of which). 

I which \ 

3*^, Relatives in I'estrietive and in Coordinate 
Chi uses. — There is an important distinction in the use of 
icho, li'hich, and that in relative clauses. Many of our best 
writers observe it, and it is strongly insisted on by a large 
number of our highest authorities in grammar. 

Professor Bain states the principle in the following lan- 
guage : 

''The adjective elanse, /;/ its fiDidamcntal restrictive 
applieatioi. should be i)itrodueed by the restrictive relative 
that." 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 25 

It should be noted that 

A restrictive clause is one that does the work of a mere 
modifier; and that 

A coordinate clause is a clanse of equal rank with a 
leading or principal clause. It usually adds some circum- 
stance to the principal clause. This addition may be in its 
nature appositive^ explanatory^ or a mere afterthought; but 
its rank in the sentence is the same as that of the principal 
clause — coordinate with it in importance. The following 
examples will make the matter plain : 

Restrictive Clauses. — The rope that ivas made of cotton 
(cotton rope) was not so strong as the cable that ivas made 
of steel (steel cable'). The man that hesitates (hesitating 
man) is lost. Clauses so used are mere adjectives in func- 
tion — they narroiv^ restrict, modify, the meaning of a noun 
or a pronoun. 

The connective that introduces a restrictive clause is not 
always tJiat. Many other words may have this function. It 
is the fact that the clause has the use of a mere adjectival or 
adverbial modifier that makes it restrictive. 

Strike Avhen the iron is hot. I know a bank ^vliereon the wild 
thyme grows. 

Here the first clause is a mere adverb in function, and the 
second an adjective. Both are therefore restrictive. 

Coordinate Clauses. — The officer, who is my cousin (= and 
he is, etc.), was very attentive. His wealth, which zvas 
great, did not surpass that of his partner, ivho zvas his 
brother. Here which = and it, and 2uho — and he. 

The connective zvho or ivhich may generally be resolved 
into and, because, although, etc. and some subject pronouns. 

He was punished, who had done no wrong {^vho — although he). 

By using that to introduce restrictive clauses, and ivho or 
which when the clauses are coordinate, ambigitity or double 
meaning is avoided. 

„- , ,, . {W\i\Xj bowed to us (sometime before). 

We met the senator \ , , , ^ ; , 4. u- \ 

( , who bowed to us (when we met hmi). 

{Who = and he.) 



M GRAMMAR. § 17 

r that ci7n do no wrong is a myth. 
A kinir ' ^^^^^ '^ '^'^ '^'^ ''^ wrong, will reign hereafter, and then 
] justice will be done. (Meaning that he is living 

[ and will come to the throne.) 

33. The following analyses will aid the student in 
understanding this matter: 



Words), (which) [are] the signs of ideas , [should be stud ied^ carefully 



Here, zc/iich — because they or for they. The sentence, 
therefore, is compound; or it may be regarded as simple., 
with an independent parenthetical clause element. Although 
the clause zcJiicJi are the sig?is of ideas., is used to explain 
zcords and in a sense modifies its meaning, the clause is of 
equal rank grammatically with the clause. Words should be 
studied carefully. The sentence is therefore compound. 
The same is true of sentence (3) below; but (2) and (4) are 
coDiplcx^ because their clauses are of ujiequal rank. 



2. (Words) (that) [have been uttered] [can] never [be recalled] 



3. (Time). (who)[is] a thief, [robs] us of our choicest tr easures . 




4. (Time) (that) [is] wasted sooner or later [brings] remorse. 

34. The student must not imderstand that this use of 
who and which solely as coordinating and of that solely as 
restrictive is fully approved by all the latest and best gram- 
marians. It is merely a very valuable distinction, actually 
made by many eminent authorities, and strongly urged for 
general adoption. That the usage will soon be fully 
accepted, there can be little doubt, for it enables us to avoid 
ambiguity and to escape an undesirable frequency in the use 
of zcho and which. The student is advised to give particular 
care and thought to the examples in Art. 41. 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 27 

35. The Double Relative. — What is called the double 
relative. The reason of this is that it does the work of 
both antecedent and relative, being equivalent to that zvJiich^ 
or tJie thing ivJiich^ in which tJiat or tiling is the antecedent 
of whicJi. This relative never represents persons^ and the 
clause introduced by it has the value of a noun. 

When zvhat is compounded with ever and soever^ it is 
called a compound relative pronoun, as are also the 
similar compounds of ever and soever with zvJio^ ivJiicJi^ and 
ivJiose. 

The uses of what are illustrated in the following sentences : 

r that which 1 

Describe Avhat you found. What — \ the thing which I 

[ the thing that J 

Explain -what caused the trouble. What = that which, etc. 

From Avhat he said, he is willing. What — that which, etc. 

In the first sentence luhat fills the double relation of oJjject 
of describe and oi found; in the second it is object of explain 
and subject of caused; in the last, it is object oi from and 
object of said. 

In all these uses, ivhat may be decomposed into an ante- 
cedent followed by a relative : that ivhicJi^ the thing- whicJi. 



The (result) f was! different from what (he) [expected]. 

t: t I =^ t 

(You) [could] never [guess! (what) [did] the mischief. 

T t -" t ^ ■ 



36. Substitutes for Relatives. — The words as, but, 
"When, >vhere, Trhence, Ts^hither, and ^vhy, as well as 
some of their compounds with ever and soever^ diV^ frequently 
used as relative pronouns. 

As, preceded by such and same. 

Select such men as you need. Such men as =: the men that, or 
those men that. 

Here men is the antecedent of the relative tJiat. 



You have the same failings j 1| . ^ ( h( 



has shown. 



2S GRAMMAR. § 17 

liut. After a negative clause but = that + not. 
None but the brave = no man tliat is not brave. 

Wlien, in cases where a noun denoting time is the ante- 

eede)it. 

There is a time \ . , . , ! men must, etc. 
( at wliieli j 

IVliere, when the antecedent denotes //<r?r^. 

He fell in the field j ^^^^^^f . j he fought. 
( oji which ) 

AVliitlier, after a clause denoting- motion to a place. 
We telegraphed to the office \ ' ^ . . , | he had gone. 

AVliy. The clause introduced by wJiy as a relative is 
always an adjective modifier; as, 

( why ) 

There is no reason \ ^ , . , J I should go. 

( for which ) 

Why I should go is an adjective modifier of reason. 



IXTEltlJOGATIYE PRONOUNS. 

37. The inteiTogative pronouns are wlio, \vhlcli, 
^vliat, and Avliether, when used in asking questions. 

■\Vlio inquires for pei'sons, is either singular or plural, 
and is entirely indefinite — the person inquiring is in igno- 
rance of the persons for whom he inquires ; as, 

rrv/. P™^ \ hurt? 

Interrogative who is declined in the same way as relative 
icho: Xoni., wJio? Poss., whose? Obj., whom? 

Whose ^ although it denotes possession, may, like the abso- 
lute per so)ial, be used in either the nominative or the objective 
case ; it is never in the possessive case. 

Xoni., rfV/rAftMS it ? Obj., [/F//^j-^ did you send him ? 

Here the antecedent of whose may be book, for example. 
AVliieli inquires for x)ei*sons or things, either one or 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 29 

more, of a class; it may therefore be either singular or plural 
without change of form ; as, 

Which of the men { ( ready ? Which \ \ the best ? 

( are j ^ \ are J 

What applies only to things ; as, 

What do you want ? What is truth ? 

Whether was formerly used with the force Which of 
two? as, 

Whether is greater, the gold or the temple. 

Whether as an interrogative pronoun is no longer used. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

38, Function of the Demonstrative Pronoun. — • 

When this and that^ with their plurals tJiese and those^ stand 
alone and have the functions of pronouns, they are called 
demonstrative ijronouns. 

This is mine if that is yours. These are good, hut those are bad. 

We have seen that when these words are joined to a noun 
to modify its meaning they are pronominal adjectives. 

This hat is old ; that hat is new. These 7nen are idle ; those 
women are industrious. 

The demonstratives are used both of persons and things, 
and they are not inflected for case. 

This and these refer to what is nearer; that and tliose 
refer to the more distant. 

His work is better than 1^, \^- J .x! of vours. You may take 
( that (distant) ) ■' ^ 

these ; I prefer those. 

Some other words are employed as demonstrative pronouns. 
Words so used may always be known by the office they fill 
in a sentence. Among these are such^ so, thus, then, here, 
there, etc. 

Yoii are a gentleman; behave as such. Since matters aro 
{so ) ^ \Here] . r ^ i i ^i Uhere\ 

\thus\ ' "^"' I This \ '' ^'^^'^ comfortable than j^^^^^^ j • 



'60 GRAMMAR, § 17 

The antecedent of a demonstrative names that which is 
referred to by the pronoun. 

This may be a >vord or a clause ; as, This is very inter- 
esting. (A l?oo^\ for example.) To bt\ or not to be ; that is 
the question. 

A condition of things ; as, Must I endure all this ? 
(The things that had been mentioned or referred to before.) 



IXDEFIXITE PROXOrXS. 

39. Function of the Indefinite Pronoun. — As its 

name indicates, an indefinite pronoun stands for names, but 
denotes the things themselves with vagueness and uncer- 
tainty. Some of them have something of the pointing-out^ 
or demonstrative quality, but not enough of it to put them 
among the demonstratives. It is their indefiniteness in 
denoting the persons or things intended that is most notice- 
able. 

Most of them are used also as adjectives, and some of them 
are regarded by many grammarians as mere nouns. But, 
inasmuch as all of them do in some measure the work of 
pronouns, it is better to call them such. 

One and other are the best examples of indefinite pro- 
nouns. This is because their antecedents are perfectly 
indefinite^ and because they are inflected for number and 

case. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Xom. one ones other others 

Poss. one's ones' other's others' 

Obj. one ones other others 

One cannot help loving one s little ones. Others wrongs impress us 
less than do our own wrongs. One can do what one likes with one s 



own. 



Other pronouns belonging among the indefinites are the 
following when used without an associated noun: none, any, 
some, eac//, erery, eitJier, neither, many, few, all, both, 
aught, naught, enough, such, else, somewhat, sundry, cer- 
tain ; also somcy any, every, and no compounded with one. 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 31 

things and body ; as, somebody, nothing, etc. When these 
elements are not united, the former is merely a pronominal 
adjective modifying" the latter; as, some one, no one, any 
one. 

Many authorities regard such words as somebody, nothing, 
everybody, anything, and other similar compounds as nouns. 
This is a matter of little importance, provided their pronom- 
inal function is distinctly perceived. 

Each, every, either, and neither are generally classed as 
distributive indefinite pronouns. This is owing to the fact 
that, although they imply a whole group, they require that 
the units making up the group shall be considered separ- 
ately. 

Each decided to make the voyage. Everybody has erred at some 
time. 

Such and other are called comparatives, because they 
are used in comparing; as. 

This is such as will please you. That is other than it should be. 

Here, that which sueh denotes is offered as something that 
has been compared with others that may not please. 

Each other and one another are called reciprocals — • 

they have a mutual sense. 

They hate each other = The former hates the latter, and the latter 
the former = They hate ; each hates the other. There must be only 
two when eacti other is used. 

They helped oiie another = They helped; 07ie helped another. 
There are always more than two referred to by one another. 



40. Exercise. — Point out and classify the pronouns in the follow- 
ing selections ; tell also what each modifies : 

1. They and I visited the park yesterday and we were much pleased 
with its fine appearance. 

2. Children learn early to distinguish between iniJie and thine. 

3. At last, like one who for delay seeks a vain excuse, he rode 
away. 

4. One must not expect many to be right when all are likely to be 
wrong. 

5. These are such as our fathers used long before we were born. 



n2 GRAMMAR. § 17 

6. "Tis said that people ought to guard their noses, 
Who thrust them into matters none of theirs. 

7. Few, few shall part where many meet. 

8. Nor is a true soul ever bom for naught: 

Wherever any such hath lived and died, 
There hath been something for true freedom wrought. 

9. ******* then I held you fast. 

And all stood back, and none my right denied. 
And forth we walked. 

10. I saw the boy. who was taking a ride on the pony that I gave 
him. 

11. What in me is dark, illumine. 

12. " Shall I have naught that is fair ? " saith he; 
• ' Have naught but the bearded grain ? " 

13. The earth yearns toward the sun for light. 

The stars all tremble toward each other, 
And even- moon that shines tonight 
Hangs trembling on an elder brother. 

14. Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap. 

15. Silver and gold have I none ; but such as I have give I thee. 



4:1. Exercise. — In the following, determine the proper relative, 
and explain the difference in meaning when the relative clause may be 
taken either as restrictive or as coordinating. Punctuate properly by 
setting off with commas clauses that begin with who or ivhich. Those 
that are restrictive omit the commas. 

1. The evil \ , . , | men do lives after them. 

( which ) 

2. The best bov - , - vou have is the one ! , | I want. 

- Mvhom) - (whom) 

3. The soldier { , > is his country' s defender should be ready to 

( who ) - ^ 

die for her. 

4. These documents \ , . , ! I commit to vour care are very 

( which ) - ^ 

important 

5. The teacher j j is \vise omits punishment ! , (is degra- 
ding. 



i 

4 



of my grandfather ] [ died a year ago. 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 33 

{who ) 
Vcame into the country through Canada was 

arrested as soon as he crossed the line 1 i • i ( separates the two coun- 
tries. 

7. The earth i ,, ^ }- is a sphere ) , ^ (is flattened at the 

I that \ ^ (that ) 

poles is nearly 8,000 miles in diameter. 

8. In manners j , , ( characterize the gentleman he was superior 

,, \ whom L , 

to alK^, ^ >-he met 
( that \ 

r who ^ 

9. I noticed a lady with a lap-dog - which y was out for an airing. 

I that J 

10. The clock ]., . [ keeps such excellent time was the property 

(wh 
(thatj 

11. The next vacation j ' i we spend at the seashore should 

restore our health < , . , >• we have lost. 
( which ) 

12. The boy enlisted for the war -j^y^ Ihis father greatly disap- 
proved. 

13. Libraries-^ tare destined to destruction by fire always 

contain literary treasures^ t cannot be replaced. 

14. The pyramids J , , , j were built of stone are still in a good 

state of preservation. 

{who ) 
V accompanied the senator from Utah was his 

wife-< , the had married a year before, 
whom -^ 



43. Exercise. — By means of diagrams, analyze the following 
sentences: 

1. As he sowed, some fell by the wayside. 

2. What did you pay for the horse that you sold to me ? 

3. One cannot always obtain one's just dues in this world. 

4. Words that are primitive have no other form that is simpler. 

5. His own father would not have known him in that guise. 



:m grammar. § 17 

6. I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke. 

7. They that have done this deed are honorable. 

8. I am no orator, but a plain blunt man that loves my friend. 

9. The usher sat remote from all, a melancholy man. 

10. I have done the State some service, and they know it. 

11. I knew that my secret was one that earth refused to keep. 

V^. Joy went with my children one and all, and tuned their voices 
with song. 

13. We, the people of the United States, do hereby ordain and 
establish this Constitution. 

14. Know then this truth — enough for man to know — 
Virtue alone is happiness below. 

15. Most men, judged by their manner of governing children, have 
never themselves been children. 

16. Fast he creepeth on, though he wears no wings, 
And a stanch old heart has he. 

17. In times like these, when the passions are stimulated, truth and 
honor are forgotten by almost everybody. 

18. His funniest after-dinner stories, which made everybody laugh, 
were often made to order. 

19. Humanity, with all its fears, 
With all its hopes of future years, 
Is hanging breathless on thy fate. 

43. Parsing the Pronoun. — To parse the pronoun, the 
student should state the following: 

1. The c/ass and s?fl?c/ass in \yhich it belongs. It may be 
personal (simple or compound), relative (simple, double, or 
compound), interrogative^ demonstrative., indefinite (distrib- 
utive, comparative, reciprocal). The antecedent should be 
mentioned, and reasons given for each conclusion. 

2. The infleetion if there be any — gender^ person^ miviber^ 
case., and why. 

3. Its use and relations in full. 

44. Model for Written Parsing. — The following model 
can be made very useful for written parsing. 

Only to a few of us did the master reveal the secret that he had so 
long concealed. 

Tell me what it is that causes the tides. 



§17 



GRAMMAR. 



Pronoun. 


Class. 


Gender. 


Person. 


Number. 


Case. 


Relation or Syntax. 


few 


indef. 


com. 


third 


plur. 


obj. 


obj. of prep, to. 


us 


pers. 


com. 


first 


plur. 


obj. 


obj. of prep. of. 


that 


rel. 


neu. 


third 


smg. 


obj. 


obj. of had concealed. 
Connects secret with 
he had, etc. 


he 


pers. 


masc. 


third 


sing. 


nom. 


subj. of had concealed. 


me 


pers. 


com. 


first 


sing. 


obj. 


obj. of to understood. 


what 


doub. rel. 


neu. 


third 


sing. 


obj. + nom. 


= that which: that obj. 
of tell; which, pred. 
nom. of is. 


it 


pers. 


neu. 


third 


sing. 


nom. 


subj. of is. 


that 


rel. 


neu. 


third 


smg. 


nom. 


subj. of c arises. 



4:5. Exercise. — Parse in writing all the pronouns given in the 
first twelve sentences in exercise, Art. 42. 



TABI.E OF PI10N0U:N^S. 



Classes 



Properties \ 



Personal \^ ■, 

I Compound. 

r Simple. 

Relative \ Double, 

[ Compound. 

Interrogative. 

Demonstrative. 

[ Distributive, 

Indefinite \ Comparative. 

1^ Reciprocal. 

Gender. [Only certain personal pro- 

Person. nouns in the singular have 

Number. gender.] 

Case. 



1. 



GRAMMAR. 

(PART 5.) 



THE VERB. 

1, The Function of the Verb. — We have already 
learned that in every sentence the verb is the predicating 
•word. It is meant by this that the verb is the word by 
means of which it is possible : 

1. To say, j The earth is a sphere. 
tell, or declare ; as, | The storm will rage fiercely. 

^ _- , , . ( /$• he a scholar ? 

2. To ask a question ; as, x ^- ^, , . »^ 

' ( Has the boy arrived? 

_ ^ ^ i Be quiet. Proceed. Walk slowly. 

3. To command, i .^ r,-^ ^^ x.^■ ^ 

. , ' •< Excuse me. Pity the bhnd. 
entreat, or wish ; as, J ^, ■^^ , ■, 

' ( Thy will be done. 

Every word in a statement is more or less necessary to the 
completeness of the statement; the same is true of the words 
in a sentence that expresses a question or a command. But 
the verb is the one word that cannot be omitted without 
making nonsense of what remains — without destroying the 
sentence. It is impossible to express a complete thought by 
words unless there is one of them that has the office of a 
verb. By this fact, grammarians were led to call this part 
of speech the verb, from the Latin word verbnin, meaning 
"a word." They intended to imply that the verb is the 
Avord — the all-important element — in speech. 

The verb is named, therefore, from considering the impor- 
tance of the part it fills in the sentence — from its use. 

§ 18 

l'\>r notice of the copyri>jht, see paj^e iininedialely follow ini; Hit' lill«' imi;i'. 



2 GRAMMAR. § 18 

It is also dcji)icd ivora the same standpoint — that of its use 
in the sentence; not, however, from the importance of that 
use or function, but from the kind of use. Considered, then, 
from the office it fills, — its function^ — the verb tclls^ it 
questions, it commands — in one word, it predicates. 

2, A\ hat It Is That A erbs Kxpress.— In order that the 
student may understand the real nature of the verb, and the 
reasons for the classifications that are to follow, it is necessary 
to consider more fully just what this part of speech does in 
the sentence. 

The most important matter with which language can be 
concerned is aetioii — the various changes and movements 
and doings of things material and immaterial. In the expres- 
sion of thought many words are required, but the most useful 
of them all are the "action words." Now, action is of many 
kinds, and it is sometimes not easy to see that a certain verb 
really does express action. 

Physical action is recognized without difficulty, generally 
by the aid of the senses. Examples of verbs denoting this 
kind of action are lualk, pnsJi^ ivritc^ skate, build. 

Mental and emotional action is almost as readily recog- 
nized as that expressed by verbs denoting sensible motions. 
Such are tJiink, remember, admire, consider, judge, decide. 

It is less easy to see that real action or change is indicated 
by such verbs as rest, He (to recline), sleep, decay, grow, and 
many others like them; but, most difficult of all, are a few 
verbs called neuter verbs, such as seem, appear., feel, and 
especially is in its various forms. 

The neuter verbs are thought by many not to express action 
at all, but a state or condition of that which is named by the 
subject. A little reflection, however, will make it clear that 
they express action and at the same time- denote a state or 
condition of the actor. 

When it is said, 

He seems sick^ 

there are certain changes in the usual appearance of the 
])erson in question, signs that speak as plainly to the eye as 



§ 18 GRAMMAR. 3 

the tongue can to the ear. In other words, certain parts of 
the person are doing something when he seems or looks or 
appears in a manner that reveals some state of his mind or 
body. His general bearing, the color of his skin, the luster 
of his eyes, and many other agencies are by a kind of action 
making known that he is in a state described by sick. 
In the sentence, 

Troy ^vas, 

there is action as well as state expressed. In order that it 
may be said that anything is or ivas^ there must be a certain 
going on from moment to moment. When this shoiuing or 
seeming^ this continuiiig or changing, ceases, some other con- 
dition of being and action takes its place, and is shown and 
recognized in a similar manner. 

In short, it appears that all verbs express action of 
some kind. 

3. Action and State. — Every verb, then, indicates some 
kind and degree of activity. But this is not all. It is true 
also that every verb exi>resses or iinx>lies a state or 
condition of tlie actor or agent. Thus, when it is said, 

TJie boy Avalks, thinks, sleeps, and grows, 

each of the verbs denotes a special kind of activity as well 
as a certain accompanying state. The boy not only performs 
the act of walking, but he is in a state or condition such that 
he may be called a ivalking boy. He is in a condition of 
walking, of thinking, of sleep, of groivth. When the boy 
zvalks or thinks, vjq notice the action, but the state is scarcely 
ever considered ; when he sleeps and grows, we notice the 
state rather than the action. If, however, we say, 

The boy is good, 

the species of action that we call being or existence is not 
thought of — our attention is engaged only by a state or con- 
ditioft of goodness in the boy. 

Hence all verbs might ho arranged in a scries beginning 
with verbs that make action prominent and state slight or 



GRAMMAR. 



§18 



unnoiiccabh\ and ending with those in which state is the 
conspicuous feature and the action is obscure or unnoticed. 



1 

Action 

{State 
implied. ) 



walk 

shout 

think 

try 

hate 

reason 



II f sleep 



Action 

and 

State 



grow 
repose 
sit 
lie 
. decay 



III 



State 

{Action \ 
implied.) 



feel 

seem 

taste 

smell 

exist 

be 



4. Terbs Active and ^'erbs Xeiiter. — It is evident 
that all verbs may be divided into two great classes — active 
verbs and neuter verbs. The dividing line between these 
two classes cannot be fixed with any definiteness, for it is 
sometimes difficult to determine whether it is the action or 
the state that is more prominent. Besides, a verb may be 
used as active in one sentence and as neuter in another. 

Active. — He sleeps noisily. 'V^efelt our way carefully. Keep your 
promise loyally. 

Neuter. — The babe sleeps safe in its mother's arms. The poor 
woman y>// sad. Keep quiet. 

When a verb is neuter^ it will take an adjective to denote 
the state expressed ; w^hen active., the indicated action may- 
be modified by an adverb. This is illustrated in the sentences 
given above. 

A verb that expresses both -action and state in nearly equal 
degrees may have with it both an adjective and an adverb ; 
the one denotes the condition of the actor and the other indi- 
cates the time or the place of occurrence, or the manner of the 
action. With verbs of this kind, the adverbial modifier is 
usually 2i phrase or a clause. 



1. (We) [shall] soon [arrive] at home safe. 

t in t I 



1 



2. How sweet the (moonlight) [sleeps] upon this b ank. 

~iz t t: I t I 



3. The (moon) [looks] wan and pale after the (sun ) [rises] . 



§ 18 GRAMMAR. 5 

In (1), soon and at home modify the meaning of shall 
arrive ; safe is a predicate adjective denoting the condition 
of the subject after the action is performed. 

In (2), upon this bank tells where the action of sleeping 
takes place — it is an adverbial phrase ; szveet is a predicate 
adjective denoting the state of moonlight. This will be 
better seen if the sentence is transposed — The moonlight 
sleeps (how) sweet upon this bank. 

In (3), the adverbial modifier denoting place is a clause — 
after the sun rises. 

5. Exercise. — By means of diagrams analyze the following 
sentences : 

1. The sun rose warm and bright above the desolate arctic scenery. 

2. Bright and fierce and fickle is the South, 
And dark and true and tender is the North. 

3. For still my voice rang false and hollow when I sang, 

4. The jewel on her brow burned clear, a mystic star. 

5. During the entire day the captive sat in his cage, sad and song- 
less. 

6. Every pupil sat erect at his desk and went through his exercises, 
patient and obedient. 

7. Long I stood there, wondering, fearing, doubting. 

8. The skies grow dark and glare red and angry. 

9. Fresh from the fountains of the wood a rivulet of the valley came. 

10. He bore himself confident and fearless before his enemies. 

11. She opened the door wide for us, and waited, quiet but atten- 
tive, for what we might say, 

12. The days seemed strangely dull and lonesome; the nights 
dragged dark and fearful. 

6. Classes of Active Verbs. — The action expressed by 
a verb may be of a kind that involves only the actor, as when 
we say, 

r walks. 

The boy \ thinks. 

y swims. 

Again, the action may begin with the actor and end with 
something that receives the action or is affected by it. 

r killed a bird. 
The boy \ flew his kite. 

solved an example. 



6 GRAMMAR. § 18 

In these examples, the action performed by the boy oper- 
ates on or affects something besides the boy himself — a bird^ 
a kitL\ an example. These words are called the direct objects^ 
or merely the objects, of the verbs. Verbs so used are called 
transitive, because the action seems to pass over {transire^ 
" to g-o over") the verb, from the name of the actor to the 
name of something that receives the action. Not always, 
however, do the subject and the object stand with the verb 
between them, but the name transitive seems to imply that 
they do. The following sentences have these two parts on 
the same side of the verb, but this arrangement is irregular 
and poetical. 

Arms and the man I sing. Rivers they forded and lofty mountains 
they climbed. 

Here anus and man are the objects of sing (celebrate in 
a poem) ; also, rivers and mountains are the objects respect- 
ively of the transitive verbs y^r</^</ and climbed. 

All active verbs not so used are called intransitive, for 
the reason that the action does not go over, so to speak, from 
an actor to a receiver. 

Ti*ansitive.— The girl ^vaslied the dishes 

and SAvept ihej^oor. 
Active Verbs -. . . , , , . 

Inti*ansitive. — The clock I'an for a time 

[ and then St opined. 

"Whether a verb is transitive or intransitive depends entirely 
on the use that is made of it, for a verb ordinarily transitive 
may be used without an object. In such cases the verb is 
intransitive. 

Men build, but time destroys. Leah ^vaslied and combed. 

The intention here is to say of men only that they perform 
the act of building, very much as we might say of birds that 
they perform the act of flying. To specify what they build 
is apart from the purpose. The verb being used intraJisi- 
tii'efy must be regarded as being intransitive '\n this use of it, 
although build is generally followed by an object. 

The subject may be omitted and yet the verb may be 



§ 18 GRAMMAR. 7 

transitive; for, in an imperative sentence, the subject is 
regularly absent, but it is clearly implied. 

He worked hard and (subject implied) saved money. (Subject) 
ring: the bells, and (subject) fire the gztns, and (subject) fling 
your starry banners out. 

Definition. — A transitive verb is a verb that expresses 
action represented as received by some person or thing. 

Definition. — An intransitive verb is a verb that 
expresses action not represented as received by any person or 
tiling. 

Definition. — A reflexive verb is a transitive verb of 
zvJiich the subject and the object denote the same person or 
thing. 

The question answers itself. They have injured only themselves. 

All verbs not actually used as neuter^ and of these there 
are few, belong in one or the other of these two great classes ; 
that is, they are either active-transitive or active -intran- 
sitive. 

7. Transitive Verbs, Active and Passive. — Transitive 
verbs are used in two forms : 

1. The Active Form. — In this use of the transitive verb, 
the subject denotes the actor, and the name of the receiver 
of the action is the direct object of the verb. 

The hunter Itilled a deer. David slew Goliath. 

Hunter names both the subject and the actor. 
Deer names both the object and the receiver of the 
action. 

2. TJie Passive Form. — In the passive form of a transitive 
verb, the subject denotes the receiver of the action, and the 
actor ^ if denoted at all, is represented by the object of the 
preposition by. 

A deer was Trilled by the hunter. Goliath was slain by Dai' id. 

Deer names both the subject of the verb and the receiver 
of the action. 



8 GRAMMAR. § 18 

Hunter names both the object of the preposition by and 
the actor (not the subject). 

Very frequently we may wish to say that something has 
been done, and yet we may either not know by whom it was 
done, or may not wish to state. Sometimes, too, it is of no 
interest by what agency the act was performed. 

Our sil7>€r lias been stolen (by — unknown). The accused was 
arrested yesterday (by — unimportant). This sediment has been 
brought hither from the uplands (by — naturat agencies that need 
not be specified). 

A verb is to be regarded as transitive only when it has an 
object actually expressed, or so definitely implied that to 
express it would be awkward and unnecessary; as. The 
farmer dug (object) and sold some potatoes. Here the verb 
dug is transitive, since its object is clearly implied, and is 
omitted only because to express it would be *^ery awkward. 
If the verb is in the passive form, it is transitive^ whatever 
may be the other elements that are missing; for only a tran- 
sitive verb can take this form. 

The following diagrams will show where the action begins^ 
and upon what it operates and eiids^ in these two transitive 
constructions: 

Transitive Forms. — 



Active. — " Our visitor related the story with much effect." 



<««(« 



Passive. — "The story was related with much effect by our visitor.'* 

8, Other Ti-ansitive Forms. — There are several pecul- 
iar cases of the transitive construction : 

]. Some intransitive verbs may be used transitively when 
compounded with a preposition. (Prepositions so used are 
really adverbs.) 

Intransitive. — They laughed at us. The people stared at the 
strangers. The teacher looked over our work. 

Transitive. — We were laughed at by them. The strangers were 
stared at by the people. The teacher overlooked our work. Our 
work 7vas overlooked by the teacher. 



§ 18 GRAMMAR. 9 

Such constructions as We were laiigJied at by them are 
not really transitive ; for at^ in laughed at^ is only an adverb. 
Many excellent grammarians, however, insist upon regarding 
laugJied at as a compound verb, and this is an easy method 
of explaining the matter. 

2. When four elements enter the construction — the three 
already mentioned and an indirect object. 

Active. — They taught liim grammar, {Him — to him.) 
Passive. — Grammar was taught {to) him by tJiem. 

When a noun or a pronoun is used in the objective case to 
denote that to ox for which anything is or is done, it is the 
Indirect object of the verb that expresses the action or 
being. 

They gave us (= to us) bread. 
I bought liiin {— for him) a pojiy. 

Here us and him are indirect objects, and bread and pony., 
direct objects. 

A very erroneous construction derived from the last is, 
He was taught wisdom by experience. He was shown his 
error by the misfortunes that followed. He should be 
Jiim or to him, and the sentences should read. Wisdom was 
taught to him by experience. His error was shown to him 
by, etc. The error is very bad and is of frequent occur- 
rence. But the active construction. Experience taught him 
wisdom. Misfortunes showed him, etc. , is to be preferred to 
the passive form. It should be added that this objectionable 
construction is used by many good writers, and that it is 
approved by some reputable grammatical authorities. 

3. When the actor implied is indefinite. In such cases, 
the actor or cause may be regarded as being in external cir- 
cumstances or influences, or in mental preference or incli- 
nation. 

I am decided (by existing facts) to retreat. He ivas inclined (by 
nature, by instinct) to evade questions. I am resolved (by — ) to try. 

Verbs so used are such as denote some form of mental 
action or state ; as, bent^ disposed, resolved, grieved, Jiiirty 
determined, etc. 



10 GRAMMAR. § 18 

Instead of regarding this as a true passive construction, it 
is perhaps better to treat it" as a case of the verb be followed 
by a verbal with the force of a predicate adjective. 

angry. 

He was \ disposed, 
resolved. 



The (general) [was] inclined to attack. 

t' f t ZZD 

Here inclined is a verbal w4th the exact value of a predi- 
cate adjective; just as if the sentence were written thus: 

i eager ) 

The general was < glad y to attack. 

( reliietant \ 

4. Cognate Objects. — Some intransitive verbs take objects 
similar in meaning to the verb [cognate, "born together"). 

The whistles blew a blast. He dreamed a dream. The judge 
drafilc a draft from the spring. He sa7U a sight. 

The passive form of this construction is generally awk- 
ward, and should be avoided. 

A sight was seen by him. A draft from the spring luas drunk by 
the judge. 

0. ExKRCisE. — Analyze by diagrams the following sentences: 

1. If you talk nonsense, you must expect few listeners. 

2. We are surrounded on all sides by mystery. 

3. The playful children turned the house upside down. 

4. He was wounded in the arm by a rifle ball. 

- 5. vSantiago was. surrendered, to the American forces by the Span- 
iards. 

6. Admiral Dewey's victory over the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay 
was followed by the cession of the Philippine Islands. 

7. He was influenced by the advice of his lawyer. 

8. Kings are no longer able to prevent the onward march of 
thought, 

9. Lighted by gems shall its dungeon be, 

But the pride of its beauty shall kneel to me, 

10. And he who scorns the least of Nature's works 
Is thenceforth exiled and shut out from all. 



§ 18 GRAMMAR. 11 

INFLECTIONS OF THE TERB. 

10. Conjugation. — As we have seen, nouns and pro- 
nouns are inflected or changed in form in consequence of 
some change in meaning or use. For a similar reason, verbs 
also are inflected. The inflection of nouns and pronouns is 
called declension; that of verbs, conjugation. This word 
means a yoking o'c joining together; that is, all the different 
inflections of a verb are so arranged as to be seen together 
and the changes to be more easily recognized and compared. 

Verbs have four inflections: (1) for mode; (2) for tense; 
(3) for number ; (4) for person. 

Definition. — Conjugation is an orderly arrangement of 
the various modes, tenses, numbers, and persons of a 

verb, 

MODE. 

11. The Function of Mode. — The following sentence, 

I 'walk, 

takes before the mind the form of a mere statement ; that is, 
the guise or mode of the thought is that of a statement or 
declaration. The thought is merely stated or indicated. 

By the help of certain other words, the thought may be 
expressed as conditional or dependent on something else — it 
assumes before the mind another /^^///(?;/ or mode. 

„ , i-I make haste, I may be late. 

Again, the thought must be conceived or recognized as 
being in the mode or dress of a command or an imperative 
in the following: 

Walk ihoii. Be qtiiet. Make kaste. 

Or, the action or state may take the form of mere mention^ 
without special reference to any person as acting or being. 
This is a case of action or being in general, as a mere abstract 
noun, and without predication. 

Walkings is exercise. To live is to think. 



12 GRAMMAR. § 18 

These different attitudes that a complete tJiougJit or a mere 
verbal idea assumes before the mind are modes ; and, since 
these differences dei:)end largely on the form of the verb and 
the way in which it is used, the verb itself is said to be in this 
or that vwdc. It is, however, generally the sentence that 
really has mode; but the word is applied in grammar only 
to the verb. Mode is to a sentence ver}' much as a uniform 
is to an official of any kind — it is the garb worn before the 
mind by a sentence. A thought appears at one time in the 
dress of a statement, and at another time in that of a ques- 
tion; now as a e om viand ^ again as a condition; etc. 

Definition — Mode is the form or use of a verb by zc/iieh 
IS s/uncn the sentential construction employed to express the 
i hough t. 

Mode comes ver\- near to being only another classification 
of sentences with respect to use. From use or function, sen- 
tences are declarative, imperative, and interrogative. From 
the form they assume before the mind, — the verbal dress in 
which they express their thought, — sentences, or, rather, the 
verbs they contain, are said to be in the indieative mode 
when they indicate or declare, or when they express a ques- 
tion; in the imperative mode when the sentence expresses a 
command ; etc. 

12. Mmles are Four in XumJ>er. — There is no 
general agreement among grammatical authorities as to the 
number of modes in English, but the greater weight of 
present opinion is undoubtedly in favor oi four modes. 

These modes are : (1) the indieative, (Vj the imperative, 
(.)) the subjunetive, (4) the infinitive. 

lo. The Indieative Mmle. — The word indicate means 
to "point out," or "show." When a thought is expressed 
in the form or guise that affirms or denies, or in that of an 
inquiry, the predicating verb is in the indieative mode. 

The earth is a planet. He witt surely come. Does he understand? 

Again, when the thought expressed in a conditional clause 



§ 18 GRAMMAR. 13 

is taken or meant as true, and not as a mere supposition^ the 
verb is in the indicative mode. 

If he is wise, he is cruel, (Here it is granted that he is wise.) If he 
was a great traveler, so also was I. 

The truth or falsity of an ordinary statement, however, has 
nothing whatever to do with the mode of its verb. The verbs 
in the following sentences are all in the indicative mode : 

The sun rises at noon. Dragon teeth were once sown, and men in 
complete armor sprang from them. The earth is an immense cube. 

The indicative is the only mode in which a question or an 
independent statement can be expressed. 

Deflnitioii. — The indicative mode is that form or use 
of a verb by ivhich a thought is predicated as a statement, a 
question, or a condition assumed as true. 

14, The Imperative Mode. — The word imperative 
means "commanding," but in grammar its meaning is 
extended to include every use of the verb between com- 
manding and mere permission. 

Make ready, take aim, fire. Come on ; let us set out. Pity the 
poor. Be still, sad heart, and cease repining. Go in peace. 

It is by use and not by form that the imperative mode of 
a verb is shown; for the imperative form make, in the sen- 
tence. Make ready, is unchanged in the indicative sentence, 
They make ready. It is the use that is different. 

The imperative verb regularly omits its subject. This sub- 
ject denotes the person or thing commanded, and is generally 
the pronoun j/6'?^. When the name oi the person commanded 
is used, it is independent by address. Thus, in Come, John, 
the sentence in full is, 

( You) Come, John. 

Definition. — The imperative mode is that use of a verb 
by which a sentence is shown to be a command, a)i exhorta- 
tion, an entreaty, or a mere j)ermission. 



14 GRAMMAR. § 18 

15. The Subjunctive Mode. — This mode is so named 
because it is found only in siibjoiiud or dependent clauses. 
The student must not assume, however, that the predicating 
verb in every subordinate clause is in this mode. 

The sub)junctive mode is used : 

1. When doubt or denial is expressed by a subordinate 
clause; as, 

If I we7-e sure of his honesty, I would engage him. Had he been 
killed, his father would have died of grief, (This is equivalent to 
denying that he was killed.) If the day had been fair, I should not 
be here. 

But, if the conditional clause expresses a certainty or an 
admitted fact^ the verb is in the indicative mode ; as. 

If he is a gentleman (which is granted), why did he not explain his 
action ? If he calls every day, be assured that he has a motive for so 
doing. (Here, is, calls, and has are indicative.) 

2. To express a Avisli — a desire that something might be 
that is not; as, 

AVould she Avere mine = I wish that she Avere mine. Thy deeds 
be upon thee = I wish thai thy deeds may be upon thee. 

3. To express a mere supposition ; as, 

If wishes 7uere horses, beggars might ride. Were the moon made 
of green cheese, the milky way could be explained. 

4. To denote a future uncertainty ; as. 

If it sno7i\ I shall be surprised. If he return, we shall kill the fatted 
calf. 

5. To express an intention not yet carried out ; as, 

The judge directs that you be reqiiircd to pay the costs. 

In all these cases, the subjoined clause expresses some- 
thing- that has no existence in reality, is contrar}^ to the truth, 
or is only conceived. The subjunctive mode is the mode of 
doubt, imagination, and uncertainty; the indicative is the 
mode of actuality, of certainty. 

10. Indicative and Subjunctive Modes Contrasted. 

The following examples will aid the student in distinguish- 
ing between the indicative and subjunctive modes: 



18 



GRAMMAR. 



15 



Subjunctive Mode. 
If twice four we7'e ten, my change 

would be correct. 
If twice four be ten, my change is 

correct. 
If the sky fall, we shall catch 

sparrows. 
Would that night or Blucher we7'e 

C07ne. 
Unless ye I'epeiit, there is no for- 
giveness. 
Should oxs-y soldier «(^j-^;z/ himself, 

he shall be punished. 
Were the sun not intensely hot, 

all life would disappear from 

the earth. 
Though I were dead, I should hear 

your voice. 



Indicative Mode. 

If twice five is ten, my change is 
not correct. 

If the mail is heavy, we put on 

more help. 
It was as dark as if night had 

co7ne. 
Unless he is here, you must wait 

until he co77ics. 
He is a coward, if he is a braggart 

(as is admitted). 
If it was a counterfeit (as is not 

denied), you were arrested 

justly. 
Though he was dead, his influence 

li7>ed. 



There are many nice distinctions in the subjunctive con- 
struction, and man}^ disputed points. These distinctions, 
however, occur for the most part in the writings of an earlier 
time; for the subjunctive mood is but little used by modern 
writers, being displaced by the indicative. It cannot be 
said, therefore, that sentences like the following are gram- 
matically erroneous, for we are constantly meeting such in 
the works of our best modern writers: 

If I was taken ill, I would call Dr. Brown. If it rai7is to-morrow, I 
will not go. Though it thu7iders, he cannot hear it. If twice six is 
ten, you owe me nothing. 

Definition. — TJie snbjnnctive mode is that form or 
use of a verb by ^vJiicJi a subordinate clause expresses 
something as dovibtful or merely supposed. 

17. Exercise. — Tell the mode of the verbs in the following sen- 
tences — indicative, imperative, or subjunctive— and give reasons: 

1. Had he been killed, I should never have forgiven myself. 

2, Though his coat were of rubber, it would not keep him dry. 
8. Though he wears a rubber coat, he is frequently wet. 

4. Unless he come for the money, I shall not pay him. 

5. AVere I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 

6. Had it been a spirit, it would have been invisible. 

7. Though I was in fault, he should have pardoned me. 



16 GRAMMAR. § 18 

8. Except he find the foot of the rainbow, he will get no pot of gold. 

9. Lest he forget his errand, 1 shall give him written instructions. 

10. Provided he go rapidly, he will be there in time. 

11. Take heed, lest any man deceive you. 

12. If you grant that he is a scholar, I shall claim that he should 
have the place. 

13. If there were a Panama canal, South America would be an 
island. 

14. Although the lake was artificial, it looked as picturesque as if 
it were natural. 

15. If he do but devote himself to his business, he will succeed. 

18. The Inftnitive Mode. — The word infinitive means 
*'not limited." This mode of the verb is so named because 
it takes no change of form in consequence of any change in 
the person and number of its subject. In the case of the 
other modes, especially the ineiieative^ such changes occur, 
and they are for that reason called finite modes; the verbs 
also are finite — they are limit eel or modified for person and 
number. The following illustrations will make this differ- 
ence clear: 

Jjidicative Mode. 

Sing. — 1st per. I go. 

( Thou goQSt. 
2d per. - ^ ^ 

^ { You go. 

3d per. He ^^es. 

Plur. — 1st per. '\sG go. 

Infi7iitive Mode. 

Sing. — 1st per. He told me to go. 

2d per. Hetold-jJ^iff j-/^^^. 

3d per. He told him to go. 
^ Plur. — 1st per. He told us to go. 



Limited 



Unlimited 



Here it will be noticed that to go assumes no change — is 
unlimited — for any changes in the person or number of th^. 
subject ; while the indicative does change, and is therefore a 
limited or finite mode. In contrast with the infinitive, all 
the other modes are called finite modes. It should be added 
that the verbal nouns and adjectives are, like the infinitive, 
unlimited — not subject to change — for person and number. 



§ 18 GRAMMAR. 17 

They are real infinitives; but by most authorities the name 
has been confined to the forms with to^ either expressed or 
imderstood. 

The infinitive does not predicate, as do the other modes ; 
but it names an act very much as a common noun names a 
thing — it is generally a kind of verbal noun. 

Life \ 

Living \ is pleasant. He desired \ 



To live) (to act. 

The preposition to generally precedes the infinitive, and 
is called its sign^ but it is not o. part of the verb, although it 
is treated as such by many grammarians. It is usually 
omitted after the verbs may, can, must, shall, zuill, do, bid, 
dare, make, see, hear, feel, and many others. 

You may {to) go. They saw him {to) finish the work. He need 
not {to) come. 

Definition. — The infinitive mode is that use of a verb by 
which action or state is represented, not as predicated, b2it 
as merely named. The sign of the infinitive is the prep- 
osition to, expressed or implied. 

19. Forms of the Infinitive. — Intransitive verbs have 
t\vo infinitives, and transitive verbs have two active and 
tvs^o passive forms of the infinitive. 

Intransitive. — 1. To walk, or To be walking. 2. To have walked, 
or To have beeii walking. 

C Active: 1. To write, or To be writing. 2. To have 
Transitive \ written, or To have been writing. 

y Passive: 1, To be written. 2. To have been written. 

20. Two Kinds of Predication. — The ^0x6, predication 
when used in grammar without a modifying word is applied, 
in its full sense, only to fi^iite verbs. They assert or deny 
action or state ; they formally state or deny that something 
is or does something or other, or they express an inquiry 
as to whether something or other is or does this or that. 

The boy is studious. If the earth revolves. The sky is not a 
dome. Study your lesson. Does he see us ? Is he not goiny: ? 



IS GRAMMAR. § 18 

This kind of predication is real — actually made — and 
belongs to verbs in the indicative, imperative, and subjunc- 
tive modes. 

But the action or state expressed by the infinitive is not 
asserted, but taken for granted or assumed, just as is done in 
the cas^ of the ordinary verbal noun. Thus, if we should say, 
Jolui Avrites, we have actually declared that some one called 
JoJin performs an act expressed by ivrites. But in, / told 
JoJin to Avrite, -or, / enjoyed Avriting, the action expressed 
by to icrite or by zuriting is not asserted but assumed. The 
idea of action goes with these verb forms as a part of their 
meaning, and not as a formal assertion. Very much like 
this difference, is that between the expressions, John's hat 
and John owns the hat. In the first expression, oicnership 
hy John is assumed or taken for granted as something not 
denied; in the second, ozvnersJiip is predicated or distinctly 
stated. All verb forms not belonging among the finite forms 
have this assunietl predication. The latter have actual 
l)Teilicati()n. 

21. Klenients That May Be Associated ^\'itli tlie 
Infinitive. — Although, in the ease of the infinitive, predica- 
tion is only assumed, this mode of a verb may have : 

1. A Subject. — This may be expressed, or it may be im- 
plied more or less distinctly. 

We invited liini to come. They persuaded us to remain. John 
was told (him) to go [to go himself). 

In the first sentence, ///;;/ is both the object of the finite 
verb ifivited and the subject of the infinitive to come. 

The subject of the infinitive is always in the objective 
case. 

2. An Object. 

AVe sent him to see the play. For us to have defeated our ene- 
mies served to hono)- our country. 

The words play, enemies, and country are all objects of 
preceding infinitives. 



§ 18 GRAMMAR. 19 

3. A Predicate Noun. Pronoun^ or Adjective. 

We knew her to be a teaclier. They declared the visitor to be 
him. Dare to be true. 

The noun or pronoun so used is in the objective case. 

4. An A dverbial Modijier. — This may be a word^ a phrase^ 
or a clause. 

To tive temperately is to /^V-^inliarmoiiy withthelawsofour 
being. It is important to stritze when the iron is hot. We knew 
the letter to Jiave been written while he Avas secretary. 

In each of these sentences, the element in black-faced type 
is a modifier of the infinitive in Italic. 



23. Functions of the Infinitive. — An infinitive may 
have the office: 

1. Of a Noun. — As a noun, the infinitive may be the 
subject or object of a verb, a predicate noun^ in apposition^ 
independent by pleonasm^ or it may be the object of a prepo- 
sition. 

To die {subject) for one's country is sweet. He tried to escape 
{object). All we ask is to see him. ( To see is a predicate noun and 
denotes the same thing as all we ask.) We are all under the same 
obligation — to help the helpless. {To help is a noun in apposition to 
obligation.) To die ; is that merely to sleep longer than usual ? ( To 
die is a noun independent by pleonasm.) Except to submit, we 
have no choice. {To sicbmit is the object of the preposition except.) 

2. Of an Adjective. — As an adjective, the infinitive may 
modify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun directly, or it 
may do so as a predicate adjective. 

They received bread to eat. ( To eat modifies bread, just as if llio 
expression were eatable bread.) He seems to liave suftered 

much. {To Jiave suffered l"^ the predicate adjective after the neuter 
verb seems.) They showed a willingness to worlc for a living. {To 
work modifies the noun willingness.) 

3. Of an Adverb. 

A man should eat to live, not lii'c to cat. They are almost 
ready to depart for the west. I hoped to be able to g'o to sec 
my teacher. 



20 GRAMMAR. § 18 

In the last sentence, to go is an adverbial modifier of able^ 
and to sec modifies to go. 

23. Exercise. — Study the models and analyze in a similar way 
the sentences that follow them : 



1. (To have apologized) [was] to have admitted 



+ \ ^^ 

that (we) [were] wrong. 



The (soldiers) f were] extremelv eager to make an attack. 



3. In her attic window the staff (she) [set], 



+ JI J" 



To show that one (heart) [was] loval yet. 
t I 

4. To die; (that) [is] to fall asleep and not ^^ wake again. 

t ZT- -c 1 =r" 

5. Each morning sees some task begin, 
Each evening sees it close. 

6. Pause not to dream of the future before you. 

7. And when above the surges 

They saw his crest appear, 
All Rome sent forth a rapturous cry, 
And even the ranks of Tuscany 

Could scarce forbear to cheer. 

f^. The story is much too sad to repeat, or even to hear, 
0. He believed his circle to be equal in area to our square 

10. I have sat and eyed 

The thunder breaking from his cloud, and smiled 
To see him shake his lightnings o'er my head. 

11. I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. 

12. The walls must be crumbled, the stones decayed, 
To pleasure his dainty whim. 



§ 18 GRAMMAR. 21 

13. She, with her bright eyes, seemed to be 
The star of the goodly company. 

14. A sunbeam would not have deigned to enter through a window 
so dirty. 

15. Such arguments will not serve to convince him of his error. 

16. To speak harshly to a child generally does harm not to be easily 
remedied. 

17. Sarcasm is a sharp-edged weapon for any one to use. 

18. To steal a pin is a sin ; to steal a ditty is a pity. 

19. Tell my sister not to weep for me and sob with drooping head. 

20. I would not have a slave to till my ground, 
To carry me, to fan me while I sleep. 

And tremble when I wake, for all the wealth 
That sinews bought and sold have ever earned. 

24. Terbals. — There are two other kinds of words 
derived from verbs. Like verbs they express action or state, 
and at the same time they have the function of adjectives or 
of nouns. Such action or state as they express is assumed, 
not predicated. Sometimes their verbal character is the 
more prominent feature ; in other cases their noun or their 
adjective nature is the stronger. Since they are forms of 
the verb, they are known by the general name of verbals. 
They are : 

1. The Gerund or Verbal Noun. — This verbal may be 
simple or compound. 

Simple. — Seeing is believing. He was accused of cheating. We 
admired his skating. 

Compound. — Being loved is more satisfactory than being hated. 
He prided himself upon having been rewarded. 

The verbal noun may. be used in the same relations as an 
ordinary noun. It may be : 

{a) The Subject of a Verb. — Living is expensive. Hav- 
ixv^ been indulged ivas the boy's ruin. 

{b) The Object of a Verb or of a Preposition. — We prac- 
ticed riding a bicycle. We may thank him for liaving 
assisted us. 

{c) The Predicate Noun, — Seeing is believing. 



22 GRAMMAR. § 18 

{(/) /// Anf of the hidcpcndoit Relations ; as, apposition^ 
cxc/aniatiofi, p/eouasni^ etc. 

In its verbal cliaracter, it may take an adverbial viodifier^ 
and when derived from a transitive verb it may have an 
object. 

Ijivin^' cconoinh'ally is the usual method of saving juoney. 
Speaking" only "a'/ien 7iv luere a(tdresscd, was required of all of us. 

Definition. — A 4»eviin(l or verbal noiin is a verbal Jiav 

ing the fit net ions of a nonn. 

2. The Part ieiple or J^erba I Adjective. — The word /<?;'//- 
ciple is derived from a Latin verb meaning- "to share" or 
"partake of." It is so called because it partakes of the 
nature and function of both the iiotoi and the adjective. 
The most common form of the verbal adjective ends in ing; 
but there is no difficulty in distinguishing it from the gerund 
having the same ending. For if, like an adjective, a verbal 
modifies the meaning of a noun or a pronoun, it is a parti- 
ciple ; if it merely names an action or a state, it is d^ gerund. 
The participle is either simple or eoniponnd. 

Si)nple. — We saw him skating. Columbus, seeing a light, knew 
that land was near. The 7ncrchant, tinisted and helped by his 
creditors, regained his jjrosperity. The Avounded soldier was 
carried to the rear. 

Compound. — The boy, having recovered, returned to his play. 
Having been snspected, he proved his innocence. 

Definition. — A x>articiple or verbal adjective is a 

verbal Jiaving the functions of an adjective. 

The verbal character of the participle is sometimes very 
slightly marked. In such cases the verbal adjective may be 
regarded as an ordinary adjective. The following are illus- 
trations: 

Running water. A dining room. A ivriting teacher. 

The same loss of verbaV value takes place with the 
gerund. It becomes a mere noun w^hen the article precedes 
it; as. 

The ticking of the old clock was heard above the raging of the 
tempest. 



S 



n 



§ 18 GRAMMAR. 23 

35. Exercise. — Study the models below, and analyze the sen- 
tences that follow : 



1, 



A (bird) swiftly cleaving the air [is] a very pleasing sight. 



2. Being tired, (l) [lay] down in the jolting wagon 

t__zr~ ~ i — \ — ^ 
+ , i . I [zm — I 

and [fell J into a sleep disturbed by troubled dreams. 

I t I i^ • I 



3. (He) [rose], struggling with weakness, 

{ I 

+ r T-^~l I I 1 

and [bowed J his head unto the sprinkled ashes. 

{ =^ I 

4. We caught sight of a donkey trying in vain to pull a loaded cart 
up the bank of a roaring mountain stream. 

5. Having prepared a hasty lunch to appease their coming hunger, 
the boys started before sunrise. 

6. He thinks, my dear little brother, so knowing, 
That feather-bed fairies do all the snowing. 

7. The evening mist, rising and floating far and wide, prevented 
us from seeing the mountains. 

8. But a bold peasantry, their country's pride, 
When once destroyed, can never be supplied. 

9. There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose. 
The village preacher's modest mansion rose. 

10. * * * * .jt * * * * * ^j^^l ^j^l^ I^Ij^^^ directing his household, 
Gentle Evangeline lived, his child, the pride of the village. 

11. And mine has been the fate of those 
To whom the goodly earth and air 

Are banned and barred — forbidden fare. 

12. I sometimes deemed that it might be 
My brother's soul come down to me. 

18. Having taken refuge in the swaying tops of the cocoanut trees, 
the monkeys threw tlie fruit at the sailors wandering about the gr()vi\ 

14. This fading sunshine being gathered up and jiourcd al)undaiitly 
upon the roofs and walls, imbued them with a kind of subdued cheer- 
fulness. 



24 GRAMMAR. § 18 

15. To spend too much time in studies, is sloth; to use them too 
much for ornament, is affectation ; to make judgment wholly by their 
rules, is the humor of a scholar. 

16. His face was covered with those wrinkles that, rightly looked 
at, are no more than a sort of permanent sunburning. 

17. Then, upon the velvet sinking, I betook myself to linking 
Fancy unto fancy, thinking what this ominous bird of yore 
Meant in croaking " Never more." 



TENSE. 

20. Function of Tense. — We have seen that, either by 
its form or by its 7isi\ or by both, the action or state 
expressed by a verb may be presented to the mind as being 
in a certain attitude or viodc. But this is not all that the 
verb is capable of showing. By its form sometimes, but 
very often by the way in which it is used, a verb may reveal 
the time of an action or a state. Thus, in / am, / see, / 
run, the verbs show by their forms that the action expressed 
is to be understood as taking place in the present; but if 
the forms be changed into / T^as, / saAV, / ran, the time of 
the action belongs to the past. 

This peculiarity of the verb, by which it reveals the time 
of an action or a state, is called tense, a word meaning 
time. 

A distinction similar to that between gender and sex must 
be made between tense and time. We may speak of the tense 
of a verb and of the time of an action, but the words cannot 
be interchanged. 

Definition. — Tense is the form or use of a verb by ivJiicJi 
it indicates the time and the degree of completeness of the 
expressed action or state. 

27. Divisions of Time. — There are three principal divi- 
sions of time — the present, the past, and the future. 
There are, therefore, three principal tenses : the present 
tense, the past tense, and the futxix^e tense. These are 



§18 



GRAMMAR. 



25 



called primary tenses, because they correspond to these 
primary divisions of time. The following are illustrations : 

Present Tense: I love. I am loving, I am loved. 

I do love. 
Past Tense : I loved. I was loving. I was loved. 

I did love. 
Future Tense : I shall love. I shall be loving. I shall 

be loved. 



Primary 
Tenses 



28. Verb Phrases. — It will be noticed that in the fore- 
going illustrations only two tense forms appear in which the 
verb love^ and no other, is used. These are / love and / 
loved. In all the others, time is shown by means of verb 
phrases. These phrases contain some form of the princi- 
pal verb associated with forms of certain other helping or 
auxiliary verbs. In the examples given, the only auxiliary 
verbs used are forms of the verbs be, do, and shall. But it 
will be shown later that the primary tenses are subdivided, 
and that from this subdivision many other verb phrases 
result, in which other auxiliary verbs must be employed. A 
complete list of these helping verbs in their present and past 
forms is as follows : 

Present. — do, am, have, shall, will, inay, can, must. 
Past. — did, was, had, should, would, might, could, — — .. 

Of these auxiliaries, do^ am., have, and zuill are used also 
as principal verbs, and their own verb phrases are formed 
by the help of aiixiliaries, in the same manner as is done 
with other principal verbs. The following examples will 

illustrate : 

am doing: 
was doin^ 
Do. I \ have done \ work. 

have been doings 
should be doing" 



must have been 
should be 
Be. He -! might have been 
will have been 
may have been 



asleep. 



20 GRAMMAR. § 18 

29. Action as Denoted by Verb Phrases. — In the 

three principal tenses, action in several conditions may be 
denoted : 

1. As Indefinite 7U2//i Respect to Time. — Thus, action 
may be expressed as performed at some time in the present, 
the past, or the future, but at wo partieular time. 

Present indefinite : /A' Avoi'lvS. /A' does Avoi'k. 
Past indefinite : //^^ Avorked. /A' did Avork. 
Future indefinite : He Avill Avorlv. He sliall Avork. 

2. As Pi'og-ressive. — By verb phrases, action or state 
may be represented as going on, and, therefore, as ineom- 
plete^ or iinfinisJied at some other time either expressed or 
implied. 

Present progressive : He is Avorking. (Now — while we speak.) 
Past progressive : He Avas Avorking-. (When I saw him.) 
Future progressive : He Avill be AVorking-. (Tomorrow— at 
the time I expect to see him.) 

3. As Complete or Perfect. — Again, verb phrases may 
represent action or state as completed or finished at some 
definite time. This definite time is, for the present tense, 
the time of speaking; and for \h.e past 2indfntnre tenses, it 
is a time at or before the time of some other act to which 
reference is made. 

Present perfect : He lias AA^orked. He lias been Av^orking. 

(At some time during the period ending with the time of speaking.) 
Past perfect : He bad Avorked. He bad been Avorking. 

(During a period ending at some past time.) 

Future perfect : He Avill liaAC AA^orked. He Avill haA^e 



The second example for each perfect tense represents the 
action before completion as continuous, in progress. These 
forms are called perfect progressive — they express continu- 
ous action completed in X\\q present, \\i(^ past, or th.e future. 

30. !N"ninber and Xaines of the Tenses. — There are, 
therefore, six tenses; they are named as follows: present, 
present i)erfeet ; jiast, \yixst x^erfect ; future, future 



§18 



GRAMMAR. 



27 



perfect. When these terms express action as going on^ or 
continuing^ the word progressive is added to indicate the 
fact. 

In addition to these, there are two forms called enipliatic 
— one for the present^ the other for the past. They are 
formed by using" do as an auxiliary verb. Thus, / do study. 
/ did study. 

The forms just mentioned are all active; in the passive 
also there are verb phrases for the same six tenses. The 
student may see all of these in the following table : 



Form. 


Tense. 


Completeness. 


Common. 


Progressive. 


Emphatic. 


Active 


Present j 

f 
Past ^ 

Future -j 


Indefinite 
Perfect 

Indefinite 

Perfect 

Indefinite 

Perfect 


I love 

I have 
loved 

I loved 

I have 
loved 

I shall 

love 

I shall have 

loved 


I am loving 

I have been 
loving 

I luas 

loving 

I have been 

loving 

I shall be 

loving 

I shall have 

been loving- 


I do \o\G 

Wanting 

I did love 

Wanting- 

Wanting 
Wanting 


Passive 


Present J. 
Past 

Future < 


Indefinite 
Perfect 

Indefinite 
Perfect 

Indefinite 
Perfect 


I am loved 

I have been 
loved 

I was loved 

I had been 

loved 

I shall be 

loved 

I shall have 

been loved 


See below 
See below 


Wanting 



31. Progressive Passive. — There has been much dis- 
cussion among grammarians about whether any verbs may 
be used in the passive progressive. If the table above 



2S GRAMMAR. § 18 

contained such forms, they would be, / am being loved, / 
//(ti'r been being- loved ^ I was being loved, / liad been being 
loved, I shall be being loved, and I shall have been being loved. 
Only two of these awkward forms are ever used, the 
/^resent and past indefinite, and the authority for them is 
very questionable. They are shown above in heavy type. 
We often hear such expressions as, He is being killed, They 
were being measured. The house ts building, or is being built, 
etc. But since the same sense may be more elegantly 
expressed otherwise, these forms should be avoided. There 
is perhaps no good authority for a progressive passive. 

32. Interrogative Tense Forms. — All tense phrases 
of the indieative mode and of the so called potential mode 
become interrogative if the subject is made to follow the 
auxiliary; q.s, A7n I loving ? Shall I be loved f Had I been 
loved? etc. 

The eonivwn forms for the present and the past indefinite, 
I love and / loved, are rarely used interrogatively except in 
poetry ; the emphatic forms, / do love and / did love, used 
interrogatively without emphasis, furnish substitutes; as, 
Do I love ? Did I love ? 

33. Potential Verb Phrases. — Many grammarians 
have what is called the potential mode. Its verb phrases 
are formed by using must, with may and can, and their past 
forms, might and eould; also, would and should, the past 
forms of zuill and shall. This so called mode is said to have 
fo7ir tenses, as shown in the accompanying table. 

All these verb phrases are, however, nothing more than 
varieties of the indieative mode — mere statements or ques- 
tions. Thus, /may love = /may (to) love, in which may 
is used as a principal verb, followed by an infinitive (to) love. 
In all these compound verb phrases, such as / shall go, I 
must be loved, I do walk, the first verb is the real one, and 
the others, taken together, with to imderstood, make up an 
infinitive used as a verbal noun in the objective case. The 
principal verb should be regarded as in the indicative mode, 



§18 



GRAMMAR. 



29 







Present. 




Indefinite. 


Perfect. 


> 
< 

> 

< 
Ah 


Common 
Progressive 

r 

Common 
Progressive 


may 1 
\\ can J^love 

yinust \ 

[may ] 
I \ can \ be loving 
must 

(may 1 
I^ can y\ye> loved 

1 mtist J 

Wanting 


1 may 
I ^ <:«;« I have loved 
must 

{may 1 
l\can \^^^^, ^^^^ 

[may 1 , 
I .J have been 

{must] l«^*^d 
Wanting 


Form. 


Past. 


Indefinite. 


Perfect. 


> 
u 

< 

w 

m - 
Si 


Common 
Progressive 

Common 
Progressive 


1 might 
J , could 
would 
[ should _ 

r might 
J , could 
would 
y should J 

f might 
T J could 
would 
{^should ^ 

Wanting 


loA^e 

be loving 

be loved 


1 might 
. J could 
would 
yshould 

r might 
T , could 
1 would 
y should 

might 

1 would 
[^should 

Wanting 


have loved 

have been 
loving 

have been 
loved 



tinless it is used in the conditional way that has been 
described as the subjunctive mode. 

The potential mode has been abandoned by most gramma- 
rians, but the pupil should be able to recognize and explain 
the verb phrases that have made up this supposed mode. Its 



30 GRAMMAR. § 18 

name comes from the Latin word pot cut ia, meaning "power." 
Caii^ and its past form, could, are the only potential auxil- 
iaries that have this meaning- of poicci' or ability ; of the 
others, may denotes pcrmissio)i or future probability; must 
means necessity; etc. But, as has already been stated 
(Art. 11), mode is determined more by the attitude of the 
entire seuteuce before the mind than by the form of the verb. 
And the meaning of the verb has nothing whatever to do 
with the mcxlc. 



34. Analysis of Verb Plii*ases. — Every verb phrase 
may be taken as a whole in classification, or its elements 
may be considered separately, and the function of each deter- 
mined. The former is the easier way, but the latter is a 
source of valuable mental discipline. Thus, let us consider 
the expression, I should have heeii loved. We may say 
that this is a fonn of the verb love in the indicative inodcy 
past tense, passive form. But in considering what function 
each element of the verb phrase fills, we see that should is 
the principal verb, that it is the past tense of sJiall and in 
the indicative mode, that it is transitive, having for its object 
(to) have been loved. "We see also that in {\.o) Jiave been loved, 
the most important element is Jiave, being a transitive verb 
with been loved ior its object ; that loved is used like a predicate 
adjective to modify the meaning of /, and that its own mean- 
ing is modified by been used like an adverb. 

AJl this is shown in diagram below: 



(l) (should] have been ioveJ 



These analyses are, however, somewhat difficult for 
a beginner, and are referred to here only for the pur- 
pose of showing the real nature of the various mode and 
tense forms. The subject will be resumed later and fully 
explained for the benefit of the student in his later gram- 
matical studv. 



§18 



GRAMMAR. 



31 



35. Relation of the Tenses Witli Respect to Time. 

The following diagram will show the relations of the six 
tenses of the indicative mode : 




^dST_PEItje\ 



The shaded part of the diagram is intended to show that 
the ^OT^ present inordinary speech does not mean noiu — tJiis 
mstant. Strictly, noiu — \hQ prescjit — is the point where the 
past and future meet ; it has no extent, and is always moving. 
But, in ordinary speech, the present is a variable portion of 
time extending into both the past and the fnture. So- that 
we use the word present somewhat vaguely. It is relative 
to human action and experience. When we say He is walk- 
ings the real meaning is that the performance of the act con- 
sumes time on both sides of the point called now. I zvork 
does not mean that action of the kind called zuork is done 
just at the passing instant; but the notion conveyed is, that 
as time passes, from day to day and from year to year, my 
habitual activity is denoted by the verb work. This verb so 
used is, however, in th.Q preseiit tense. This extension of 
the present into the past and future finds its extreme in what 
is called the universal present. This variety of the present 
tense is found in those activities or states that are always 
going on — always true. 

Six added to three makes nine. Bread is the staff of life. The sun 
shines. We learned that the earth revolves. 

The diagram is intended to show the following facts : 

1. The time denoted by the present tense covers a period 

of variable extent, and lies partly in the past and partly in the 

future. 

The earth revolves. The bird is singing. 



'62 GRAMMAR. § 18 

2. The time included by the past tense covers all past 
time and reaches to tht moving point called ?iOZi'. 

The r'wcv Jl owe li. The ocean was roaring. 

3. The time denoted by the future tense begins at the 
point iiozj and includes all future time. 

The sun will grow cold. The day will co7ne. 

\. The present i>erfeet tense denotes action or state as 
complete at some point in the present. 

He has worked. AVe have been writing. I have been advised. 

Observe that the action expressed by this tense must not 
be thought of as ending., or being finisJied^ just at the presefit 
moment. This may or may not be the case. "We may say 
of a man that for many years has been engaged in the kind 
of action described by the verb work., " He lias worked.,'' as 
if the action were ended ; but it may be continued indefinitely 
after the time of speaking. 

5. The past perfect tense denotes action or state as com- 
plete at or before some specified past time. 

He had been writing (before I called). When I arrived, he had 
gone. He had been hiding for a week (before he was found). 

G. The future perfect tense denotes action or state as 
complete at or before some specified fitiire time. 

The vessel will have sailed (by the time you reach the dock). If 
snow shall ha^'e fallen, we shall not start in the morning. 

30. Exercise. — Tell the tense of each verb in the following: 

1. I may go. He might come. Gold is heavy. The boys have 
been studying. 

2. Shall I answer ? Did he come ? Have they gone ? If he is 
here, invite him to come into the office. Will not the sun be eclipsed ? 
Did you expect me to go? 

3. He was thought to have escaped. If I were he, I should under- 
take the work. Shall you have gone by sunrise ? Who had been sus- 
pected before they found the person that was really guilty ? 

4. Why should anyone be so proud ? Have you done all that you 
should have done? Did you do the work that you promised to do? I 
should be glad to oblige you if I were able. Can }-ou tell me what he 
does for a living ? 



i 



§ 18 GRAMMAR. 33 

5. Would you let me visit the city? Ought he not to pay me? 
Have you had your dinner ? Can you tell me where he has gone ? 
Nobody can tell what will have happened by that time. 

6. What has been done about the matter? No one has been 
informed. How red the sky is. There had been rain and the roads 
were muddy, but we set out notwithstanding. Did you see him before 
he had been arrested ? 

7. Let there be light. Be good, my child, and let who will be 
clever. 

The verb let is in the imperative mode and be is in the 
infinitive. Written in full, the sentence would be, (You) let 
there (to) be light. 

Come one, come all, this rock shall fly 
From its firm base as soon as I. 

8. Men, my brothers, men the workers, ever reaping something 

new: 
That which they have done but earnest of the things that they 
shall do. 



I 



GRAMMAR, 

(PART 6.) 



1. The Different Modes Witli Regard to Time. — The 

meaning" of the six tenses just explained applies strictly only 
to the ordinary tense forms of the indicative mode. In the 
other modes, the notion of time is often unimportant, or it 
is obscured by some other consideration. In a statement or 
a question^ time is generally a matter of importance ; in other 
words, the tenses of the indicative carefully distinguish dif- 
ferences of time. Thus, in the following sentences, the 
time of the action or state is denoted very plainly and exactly 
— as much so as the action itself. 

He sees the deer. We saw a fox. They will come. They have 
been paid. The road had beeit made. They will have gone. 

In these examples, the time of the action is revealed by 
the tense form, but in the other modes the tense form gen- 
erally misleads in regard to time. Thus, in the sentence, 

If he were sick, I should go to him, 

were and should go are past tenses in form, and should, there- 
fore, denote past time; but zucre may denote future time, 
and should go indicates a time depending on the time of the 
action expressed by zuere. Here it is the condition — the 
supposition — that is prominent, and the tense form shows 
nothing of the time, which is really not important. 

Again, in the imperative and the infinitive tense forms, 
the real time of the expressed action must be gathered from 

§ 1'^ 

For notice of the C()p3'ris>:ht, see pa^c inmuHliatcly folKuvinir llio title pavje. 



2 GRAMMAR. § 19 

the entire sentence. This may be seen from the following 
examples: 

Be gcxxi, my child, and let who will be clever. (In the future — 

habitually.) 

To die for one's country is glorious. (A general truth — always true.) 

^ , , f was not a sufficient triumph for Alexander. 

To have conquered \ . -, , . 

' X ts our proud boast as a nation. 

^ ^ ' i li'ill be the achievement of the Anglo-Saxon. 

In the case of the verbals, the element of time is almost 
always obscure and overshadowed. The time of the denoted 
action may, however, nearly always be gathered from the 
context. 

r having finished his lesson, li'ent skating one day, etc 
A boy, ■( looking for a situation, asks to see you, sir. 

I having been educated, will find life easier, etc. 

But, whatever time a tense form may really denote, the 
grammatical tense is named from that form. Thus, the 
verb is present \n If I come ; past in Jf I came ; and present 
perfect in //"/have come and in To liave eo7ne. 

2, Effect of Certain Elements in Tense Phrases. — In 
tense phrases, ever}- element has a special influence in deter- 
mining the effect of the whole phrase. 

Some of the most important of these are as follows: 
Have in its various forms, either alone or followed by been^ 
gives the notion of eoinpleted action. 

Have been killed. Having come. Had gone. 

The i^articiple in ing denotes iinfinisJied or progressive 

action. 

I am walking. / have been walking. 

The passive participle in the verb phrases of transitive 
verbs denotes /^7.y.f/:d' action. 

I have been hurt. The deer had been piii'sued. 

The passive participles Jiurt and pursued denote action 
that affects, or is received by, that which is represented by 
the subjects / and deer. 

Do gives emphasis to declarative verb phrases. 

He does work. They did call. We do repent. 



19 



GRAMMAR. 



3. Person and Number of Verbs. — Some verbs have 
in the present and past tenses certain inflections or changes 
of form in consequence of changes in the person and number 
of the subject. This is shown in the examples that follow: 



Singuh 



Plural 

I 

These inflections for person and number are very few and 
unimportant for English verbs, yet they have led gramma- 
rians to say that a finite verb must agree zvitJi its subject in 
number and person. By this they mean that such changes 
must be made in the form of verbs as are required by changes 
in the person and number of the subject. 



Present Tense. 




Past Tense. 




1st Per. I see, 


am 


I saw. 


was 


2d Per. Tlioii .y^^st, 


art 


Tlion saw^^t^ 


wast 


3d Per. He see^^ 


is 


He saw. 


was 


1st Per. We see. 


are 


We saw. 


^vere 


2d Per. Yon see. 


are 


Yon saw. 


were 


3d Per. They see. 


are 


They saw. 


were 



VERBS REGULAR A:N^D IRREGULAR. 

4. The Inflectional Base. — The simple inflectional base 
of the verb is the form it has in the first person singular of 
the present indicative or in the present infinitive. These, 
for a few verbs, are as follows : 



Inflectional Base. - 



Ind. Pres. 1st Pers. Sing. — / go, come, 
am, report, Avrite, rule 

Present Injinitive. — To g'O, come, be, 
report, write, rule 



From these inflectional bases or root forms the various 
modes and tenses are derived. Now, the most important 
of all the derived forms are the past indicative and the per- 
fect participle. For the verbs given above, these two forms 
are as follows : 

Past Indzeative.^'Wewt^ came, Avas, reportQ.d^ Avrote, nded 
Perfect Participle.— GoJiG^ come, been, ;v/^;r/e(l, Avrftten, 
rule(\. 



4 GRAMMAR. § 19 

It will be noticed that the inflectional base is retained in 
the past tense and perfect participle of only two of the fore- 
going verbs. These two are report and rule^ and their 
derived forms are made by adding eel to the former and 
d alone to the latter. All the remaining verbs form their 
past tense and perfect participle in some other way. Now, 
verbs are divided into tw^o classes, according as they do or 
do not make these two forms, the past tense and the perfect 
participle, by adding tl or ed to the inflectional base. These 
two classes into which verbs are divided are regular verbs 
and irregular verbs. 

Definition. — A regular verb is a verb that forms its 
past tense and perfect participle by addijig d or ed to its root 
or inflectional base. 

Some examples of regular verbs follow : 
Infect ional Base. \ t recite, return, provide, conceal, act 

_, r , y. ..'•*, 7 }-Recite(\.^ retiirjiGd. ^rovide^^ co7iceate(i^ acte(\. 
Perfect Fariiciple. \ ' ' ^ ' ' 

Definition. — An irregular verb is a verb that does not 
form its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed 
to its root or inflectional base. 

The following are some examples of verbs that form the 
past tense and perfect participle irregularly : 

Root Form.X j see, drink, feel, liit, keep, find, ride 

Past hid. — saw, drank, felt, bit, kept, found, rode 

Perf. Part. — seen, drunk, felt, bit, kept, found, ridden 

5. Principal Parts of a Verb. — The three forms given 
above, together with the present participle^ are called the 
principal parts. They are so called because of their impor- 
tance in forming verb phrases. They are used in accordance 
with the following rules: 

1. The root infinitive preceded by the auxiliary do 
forms the empbatic present and past indicative. 

/doAvork. //^ does study. JfVdidgo. 



19 



GRAMMAR. 



2. The root inflnitive, preceded by 

(a) may, can, or must, forms the present indicative ; 

(I?) miglit, could, ^\ ould, or should, forms the past 
indicative ; 

(c) shall or vs^ill, forms the future indicative. 

It should be remarked that {a) of the foregoing is the 
former potential present and {d) is the potential past. 
But, as has already been explained, these auxiliaries are 
really not auxiliaries but principal verbs followed by an 
infinitive object with to omitted. 

I may go = / may (to) go. I shall come — I shall {to) come. 

3. The present participle as an element of a verb phrase 
makes the expressed action prog:ressive or continuous. 

I am working'. We have been tliinking. They should have 
been acting. 

4. The perfect participle of the principal verb, when 
preceded by have in any of its forms, denotes comi)leted 
action. 

/ have w^ritten. He has gone. They had loved. We 
should have spoken. 

5. The perfect participle of the principal verb, when 
preceded by he in any of its forms, denotes passive action. 

He is loved. We were chosen. They should have heen 
arrested. 



6, Redundant Terhs. — Some verbs form their past 
tense, or their perfect participle, or both, in two ways. Such 
verbs are both regular and irregular ; and, since their prin- 
cipal parts consist of more tJian tJie usual number of words, 
the verbs are called redundant. A few of them are given 
below: 



Root. 


Past Indicative. 


Perfect Participle. 


Pres. Part. 


bereave 


bereft or bereaved 


bereft or bereaved 


bereaving 


dare 


durst or dared 


dared 


daring 


mow 


mowed 


mowed or mown 


mowing 


swell . 


swelled 


swelled or swollen 


swelling 


weave 


wove or weaved 


weaved or woven 


weaving 



The most important redundant verbs are usually given in 
the list of irregular verbs. 



6 GRAMMAR. § 1\) 

7. Defective Verbs. — A few verbs called defective are 
used only as presents and as past indefinites, and they have 
their formation irregular. They are: 



Present. 


Past. 


Present. 


Past. 


can 


could 


shall 


should 


may 


might 


will 


would 


methinks 


methought 


quoth 


quoth 


must 


must (?) 


wis 


wist 


ought 


ought (?) 


wit 


wot 



Whether must and ought can properly be used as past 
indefinites is disputed. Wis, ivist, and zuot are old forms 
and are nearly obsolete. Beware is defective also — a present 
only. 

8. Old or Strong-, and iNe^v or AYeak, Verbs. — The 

changes that go on among the people that speak a particular 
language compel them to be constantly inventing new words 
to express their thoughts. Most of these new verbs are 
promptly rejected; but many of them are accepted by good 
authorities, and come into general use. In conjugating these 
verbs, they all follow the model of regular verbs, so that 
regular verbs are said to have the neAv conjugation. This 
is by many called the ^veak conjugation, perhaps because 
these verbs are not so forcible as the old verbs that we use 
so much and have used so long — the irregular verbs. These 
have the old or strong conjugation. 

9. Ijist of Irregular Verbs. — In using the English 
language to express our thought, if we would avoid error, there 
is perhaps no one thing so important as to be perfectly familiar 
with the principal parts of the irregular verbs. The following 
list is given, therefore, and the pupil should not be content 
until he has mastered it. The present participle is omitted, 
since it is always formed from the root verb by adding ing. 
Of course the rules of spelling must be observed in form- 
ing all the principal parts. Many verbs in the following 
list are both irregular and redundant. AVhen two or more 
forms of a principal part are given, the preferable form 
occurs first. 



§19 



GRAMMAR. 



Root Form. 


Past Indicative. 


Perfect Participle. 


abide 


abode 


abode 


be or am 


was 


been 


bear 


bore, bare 


borne, born 


beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


begin 


began, begun 


begun 


bend 


bent, bended 


bent, bended 


bereave 


bereaved, bereft 


bereaved, bereft 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bid 


bade, bad, bid 


bidden, bid 


bind 


bound 


bound, bounden 


bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken, broke 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built, builded 


built, builded 


burn 


burned, burnt 


burned, burnt 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


chide 


chid, chode 


chidden, chid 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cleave 


cleft, clove, clave 


cleft, cloven, cleaved 


cling 


clung 


clung 


clothe 


clothed, clad 


clothed, clad 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


crow 


crowed, crew 


crowed 


cut 


cut 


cut 


dare 


dared, durst 


dared 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dig 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreamed, dreamt 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dwell 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelt, dwelled 


eat 


ate, eat (et) 


eaten 



8 




GRAMMAR. 


§19 


Root Form- | 


Past Indicative. 


Perfect Particip'.;. 


faU 


fell 




fallen 


feed 


fed 




fed 


feel 


felt 




felt 


fight 


fought 




fought 


find 


found 




found 


fiee 


fled 




fled 


fling 


flung 




flung 


fly 


flew 




flown 


forsake 


forsook 




forsaken, forsook 


freeze 


froze 




frozen, froze 


get 


got 




got, gotten 


gild 


gilded, gat 


gilded, gilt 


gird 


girded, girt 


girded, girt 


give 


gave 




given 


go 


went 




gone 


grind 


ground 




ground 


grow 


grew 




grown 


hang 


hung, hanged 


hung, hanged 


have 


had 




had 


hear 


heard 




heard 


heave 


heaved. 


hove 


heaved 


hide 


hid 




hidden 


hit 


hit 




hit 


hold 


held 




held, holden 


hurt 


hurt 




hurt 


keep 


kept 


<• 


kept 


kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


knit 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


know 


knew 




known 


lead 


led 




led 


lean 


leaned, leant 


leaned, leant 


leap 


leaped, leapt 


leaped, leapt 


learn 


learned. 


learnt 


learned, learnt 


leave 


left 




left 


lend 


lent 




lent 


let 


let 




let 


lie 


lay 




lain 


light 


lighted. 


lit 


lighted, lit 


lose 


lost 




lost 


make 


made 






mean 


meant 




meant 


meet 


met 




met 


pen 


penned. 


per.: 


p>enned. pent 



19 



GRAMMAR. 



Root Foi-m. 


Past Indicative. 


Perfect Participle. 


put 


put 


put 




quit 


quit, quitted 


quit, quitted 




read 


read 


read 




reave 


reaved, reft 


reaved, reft 




rend 


rent, rended 


rent, rended 




rid 


rid 


rid 




ride 


rode 


ridden 




ring 


rang, rung 


rung 




rise 


rose 


risen 




run 


ran 


run 




say 


said 


said 




see 


saw 


seen 




seek 


sought 


sought 




sell 


sold 


sold 




send 


sent 


sent 




set 


set 


set 




shake 


shook 


shaken 




shear 


sheared, shore 


sheared, shorn 




shed 


shed 


shed 




shine 


shone 


shone 




shoe 


shod 


shod, shodden 




shoot 


shot 


shot 




show 


showed 


shown, showed 




shred 


shred, shredded 


shred, shredded 




shrink 


shrank, shrunk 


shrunk, shrunken 




shut 


shut 


shut 




sing 


sang, sung 


sung 




sink 


sank, sunk 


sunk, sunken 




sit 


sat, sate 


sat 




slay 


slew 


slain 




sleep 


slept 


slept 




slide 


slid 


slid, slidden 




sling 


slung 


slung 




slink 


slunk, slank 


slunk, slank 




slit 


slit, slitted 


slit, slitted 




smell 


smelled, smelt 


smelled, s-melt 




smite 


smote, smit 


smitten, smit 




sow- 


sowed 


sown, sowed 




speak 


spoke, spake 


spoken 




speed 


sped, speeded 


sped, speeded 




spell 


spelled, spelt 


spelled, spelt 




spend 


spent 


spent 




spill 


spilled, spilt 


spilled, spilt 





10 



GRAMMAR. 



§19 






Root Form. 


Past Indicative. 


Perfect Participle. 


spin 


Spun, span 


spun 


spit 


spit, spat 


spit, spat 


split 


split, splitted 


split, splitted 


spoil 


spoiled, spoilt 


spoiled, spoilt 


spread 


spread 


spread 


spring 


sprang, sprung 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stave 


staved, stove 


staved, stove 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 


stink 


stank, stunk 


stank, stunk 


strew 


strewed 


strewed, strewn 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


strow 


strowed 


strowed, strow n 


swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


sweat 


sweat, sweated 


sweat, sweated 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


swim 


swam, swum 


swum 


swing 


swung, swang 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


thrive 


throve, thrived 


thriven, thrived 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


tread 


trod 


trodden 


wake 


waked, woke 


waked 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove, weaved 


woven, wove, weaved 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wet 


wetted, wet 


wetted, wet 


whet 


whetted, whet 


whetted, whet 


win 


won 


won 


wind 


wound, winded 


wound, winded 


work 


worked, wrought 


worked, wrought 


wring 


wrung, wringed, wrang 


wrung, wringed, wrang 


write 


wrote 


written 



I 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 11 

CONJUGATIOl^. 

10, " Be " and " Have." — The conjugation of a verb, 
as has already been explained, is an orderly arrangement of 
all its forms in the various modes, tenses, numbers, and per- 
sons. In order to conjugate a verb correctly, its principal 
parts must be known. If the student is familiar with these, 
he may, by applying the rules given in Art. 5, conjugate any 
verb. For the purpose of guiding any one in the correct 
use of verb phrases, all that is usually required is a briefer 
form of conjugation called a synopsis, which is a word 
derived from the Greek, and means a " connected view. " A 
synopsis generally consists of some particular person in each 
tense of the indicative and subjunctive modes, and all the 
forms of the imperative, the infinitive, and the verbals. On 
account of the very great importance of the auxiliaries be and 
Jiave in conjugating other verbs, synopses of them are given 
below. 

Synopsis of " Be." 
Prill. \Pres. Inf. — (T^*?) Be Past Ind. — Was Per/. Part.— Beew 
Parts. S Pres. Part.—^^\\\^ 

Indicative Mode. 
Present. — /am ; or I may, can, or must be 
Past. — /Avas; or I might, could, luoiild, or should \iQ) 
Future. — / shall T3e ; or / will "be 

Pres. Per/. — I have been ; or I may, can, or must have been 
Past Per/. — I had lyeGY^ ; or I might, could, etc. have been 
Fut. Perf.—I shall have been ; or I will have been 

Subjunctive Mode. 
Present. — (If, unless, etc.) /be 

Past. — (If, unless, etc.) / vs^ere, or should be; or AVere /, or 
Should I \)e> 

Imperative Mode. Infinitive Mode. 

Present -S ^^ thou, you, ov ye, or Present. — To be 

* \ Do thou, you, or ye be Pres. Per/.— To have been 

Verbals. 
Participles. Verbal Nouns {Gerunds). 

Present.— Be\r\^ Present.— TieUxfj^ 

Pres. Perf.—Wiw'iwii; been Pres. /V;/.— Having' been 

Past Perfect. — Been 



12 GRAMMAR. g 19 

Synopsis of ^' Have/' 

Prift. t Pr^s. Inf.—\To)Uskxe Past InJ.—HaA Per/. Par L^ 
Farts, f Had Pres. ParL—UaLxlng 

Indicative Mode. 

Present. — /have. / am having, or / do have ; or I may^ can, or 
must have, or be having 

Past. — / had, / ZL-as having, or I did have : or I might, could, 
etc have, or be ha\'ing 

Future. — / shall have, or / ivill have : or / shall or 'unll be 
having 

Pres. Perf. — I have had, or I have been having 

Past. Perf. — I haJYyaA^ or I had betn having 

Fut. Perf. — / shall or tt/// have had, or / shall or will have 
heen having 

Sl-bjl-nctive Mode. 

Present. ^\ii, imless, etc) /have or be having 

f /had, zi-ere having, or j/^^wA/have, or 
I behaving: or 

/'a^/.-<If,t:mes5.etc)-, ^^^ j -^vr.- /having, or j>L7irA// have 
I or be having 

IjfPEKjLTrvE Mode. Ixfixitive Mode. 

Present ^ ^^^^^ ^^"^ <^y^: or Present. — To have 

i I>o thou, you, or ye have Pres. Perf. — Tj have had 

Ve^eals. 

Participles. Verbal Kouns {Gerunds). 

Present. — Having Present. — Ha ving 

Pres. Perf. — Having had Pres. Perf. — Having had 
Past. Perf.—H.Si(i 

ll. Exercise. — In the manner sho^m in the foregoing models, 
•write the following: 

1. The active verb phrases in all the tenses of see in the indicative 
mode. 

2. The verbals, active and passive, of _/?«</ (inclnding the infinitive). 

3. All persons and numbers of the present and the past indicative 
of lie (to reclinel 

4- The passive of lo^'e in the first person pinral in the six tenses of 
the indicative moie. 

5. The emphatic forms of go in both nnmbers and all the persons. 

6. The progressive forms of "sprite in the third person singular erf 
the tenses of the indicative mode. 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 13 

7. Make a synopsis of the passive forms of choose. 

8. Give the verb swim in the interrogative forms of the first person 
singular in the tenses of the indicative mode. 

9. Write the principal parts of ten of the most frequently used 
irregular verbs. 

10. Use correctly in sentences the present perfect, active, or passive, 
of the following verbs: swijn, drinks come, go, ring, sing, see, begin., 
lie {to recline), lay. 

12. Use of "Shall" and "^ Will."— When shall and 
will^ with their past forms, sJiould and would, are used as 
auxiliaries in promising or foretelling, they are conjugated 
as follows: 

[ I shall, should [ We shall, should 

Sing. -{ Thou wilt, wouldst Plttr. ^ You will, would 

I He will, would I They will, would 

I shall conie unless I should be sick. I shall try and my brother 
ivill help me. 

When used interrogatively, they simply ask for informa- 
tion or permission, or they inquire concerning the Avill or 
X^urpose of some other person or persons. Their conjuga- 
tion in this use is given below: 

[ Shall, should I ? f Shall, should we ? 

Sing. \ Wilt, wouldst thou ? Plur. \ Will, would you ? 

[ Will, would he ? [ AVill, would they ? 

Will it rain ? Shall I call tomorrow ? Would the teacher permit 
you to go ? . 

Determination, strong purpose of the speaker, and obli- 
gation, are expressed by the following conjugation : 



Sing. 



I luill come and he shall not prevent my doing so. 

The foregoing are the common uses of these auxiliaries, 
but there are many nice distinctions that must be mastered 
before the student can entirely avoid error with shall and 
will, and their past forms, should and luould. 



I 


will. 


would 




We 


will 


would 


Thou 


Shalt, 


should st 


Plur. 


You 


shall, 


should 


He 


shall. 


should 




They 


shall, 


should 



14 GRAMMAR. g 19 

13, Parsing the Verb. — To parse the verb, the student 

should give: 

1. Its Classijkaticns. — This consists in stating whether it 
is regular or irregular^ and gi\4ng its principal parts; in 
stating whether it is transitive or intransitive ; and in gi\4ng 
its object^ if it is transitive and active. 

2. Its Inflections. — This involves telling, in order, the 
vwde^ tense^ person^ and number^ with the reason in each case. 

3. An Analysis of the Verb Phrase. — In doing this, ths, 
origin of each element of the verb phrase should be explained 
as in Art. 15, When possible, the grammatical function A 
each phrase element should be given. This requirement will 
be made only in the case of advanced students. 

After some experience in the minute parsing indicated in 
the foregoing, the brief voLethodi exemplified below should be 
followed. 

To illustrate these two methods, let it be required to parse 
the verbs in the following sentence : 

After the wind had risen, the snow was blown in blinding e-^^^es 
through the streets. 

Had risen is an irregular verb, because it does not form 
its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to its 
root form rise ; principal parts : root, rise, past tense, rose, 
perfect participle, risen; intransitive^ it has no object; 
indicative mode, it is used in a mere statement ; past perfect 
tense, it denotes action completed before a past time speci- 
fied by ivas blo^vn ; third person, singular^ because its subject 
zvind is in that person and number. 

The verb phrase had risen is composed of the past of 
have and the perfect participle of rise. The element had 
makes the verb phrase denote past time, and risen denotes 
completed action. 

Was blow^n (parsed briefly) is an irregnlar verb, from 
bloiv, blezv, blozvn ; transitive, passive, indicative mode, past 
tense, third person, singular. Was is the past tense of the 
neuter verb be, and is used as a mere copula, or verbal con- 
nective, making the phrase denote past time ; blown is the 
perfect passive participle of blou\ and is used like 2i predicate 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 15 

adjective to modify the subject snoiv, to which it is connected 
by was. 

14. Exercise. — Parse the verbs in the following sentences: 

1. The people told the sexton and the sexton tolled the bell. 

2. Saint Nicholas, the patron saint of boys, died at Myra, in Asia 
Minor, in the year A. D. 326. 

3. All that tread the earth are but a handful to the tribes that 
slumber in its bosom. 

^), 4. You should have borne with my faults more patiently. 

5. 'Tis true, this god did shake ; his coward lips did from their 
color fly. 
• " 6. A friend would not have seen such trifling faults. 

7. Honor and shame from no condition rise ; 
Act well thy part, — there all the honor lies. 

8. Should the eagle mate with the crow, even then I would not 
marry the son of the earl. 

9. Which of our presidents is believed to have been poisoned ? 

10. Kings may be blest, but Tarn was glorious. 

11. There is none so blind as the man that will not see. 

12. My story being done, she gave me for my pains a world of 
sigiifi:. 

13. If the ' ' Maine ' ' had not been blown up, the Spaniards might now 
be in possession of their colonies. 

14. We had lain for many days in the quiet bay, when at last we 
began the long voyage across the Indian Ocean. 

15. Analysis of Terb Phrases. — Verb phrases may be 
placed in diagrams in very much the same manner as sen- 
tences are. By this means, the nature and function of each 
phrase element may be shown. In ordinary analysis the 
entire verb phrase is usually treated as a unit, although it 
consists of parts each with a distinct work to do. To take 
them apart is a valuable exercise, since it requires very close 
consideration and correct judgment. The following models 
will indicate what is required in the next exercise : 



1. (He) [may] love. (We) [should] be careful, (it) [may] be. 

Explanation. — In the first sentence, love = to love, and 
in the second and third sentences, be = to be used as a verbal 
noun. 



IG 



GRAMMAR. 



§19 



I ^__ I ZZl.^ ^ r~ — I 

2. (They) [are] loved. ( I ) [am] working, (it) [might] have been. 



3. (They) [should] have been arrested. (He) [has] not been seen. 



16. Exercise. — Analyze the following verb phrases: 

1. He is educated. They v^ere blamed. He must come. 

2. They should be punished. I may be invited. 

3. Thou mayst be honored. He might have been seen. 

4. He was believed to have fled. He will be working. 

5. He cannot be trusted. Having been examined, he will bo 
appointed. 

6. Can he' have forgotten? Should he seem to be careless, you 
must not employ him. 

7. They should not have been writing. The letters were to have 
been written before. 

8. "Will he be willing to go ? Must we be punished ? 

9. I shall have done the work. He might have been sleeping. 

IT. "Writteii Parsing- of Terbs. — A method of parsing 
verbs briefly in writing- is illustrated below. In this, and in 
parsing" generally, the verb phrase is taken as a whole. The 
analysis of A^erb phrases should be made a separate exercise. 

Let it be required to parse in writing the verbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

Had I the wings of a dove, how soon I should see you again. 

The mind can make 
Substances, and people j)lanets of its own 
With beings brighter than have been. 



Verb. Form. 


Class. 


Mode. 


Tense. 


Per. 


Num. 


Subject. 


Prin. Parts. 


had irreg. 


trans. 


sub j . 


past 


first 


sing. 


I 


have, had, had 


(should) see irreg. 


trans. 


ind. 


past 


first 


sing. 


I 


see, saw, seen 


(can) make irreg. 


trans. 


ind. 


pres. 


third 


smg. 


mind 


make, made, made 


(can) peoplej reg. 


trans. 


ind. 


pres. 


third 


sing. 


(mind) 


people, peopled, peopled 


have been irreg. 


intrans. 


ind. 


pres. perf. 


third 


plural (beings) 


be, was, been 



§19 



GRAMMAR. 



1? 



18. Exercise. — As in the model, parse the verbs in the following. 

1. Good Americans, when they die, go to Paris. 

2. He that has once done you a kindness will be more ready to do 
you another than he whom you yourself have obliged. 

3. Then shall the nature that has lain blanched and broken rise 
into full stature and native hues in the sunshine. 

4. I see in thy gentle eyes a tear ; 

They turn to me in sorrowful thought ; 
Thou thinkest of friends, the good and dear, 
Who were for a time, but now are not. 

5. To pity distress is but human ; to relieve it is godlike. 

6. Diogenes struck the father when the son swore. 

7. You hear the boy laughing ? You think he's all fun; 

But the angels laugh too at the good he has done. 
The children laugh loud as they troop to his call, 

And the poor man that knows him laughs loudest of all, 

8. Boston State-House is the hub of the solar system. You couldn't 
pry that out of a Boston man if you had the tire of all creation 
straightened out for a crowbar. 



TABIiE OF VERBS. 



Verbs as to 



" 1. Action 



Form 



. 3. Use 



Transitive 



Intransitive 



Active. 
Passive. 

Active. 
Neuter, 



f Regular — Love, walk. 

j Irregular — Go, come, dritik. 

Defective — Ought, can, beware. 

Redicndant — Dive, dream. 



Principal 



A tcxiliary 



\ Walk, go, 
walked, went, 
walked, gone. 

Do, be, have, will, 
shall, may, can, must. 



18 



GRAMMAR. 



19 



IXFI.ECTIOX8 OF VERBS. 



Mood. 


Tense. 


Number. [ Person. 


Indicative. 

Subjunctive. 

Imperative. 
Infinitive. 


Pres., Pres. Perf. 
Past, Past Perf. 
Fut., Fut. Perf. 

Present. 
Past. 

Present. 

Present. 
Present Perfect. 


Singular. 
Plural. 

Singular. 
Plural. 

Singular. 
Plural. 

Wanting. 


First. 

Second. 

Third. 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Second. 
Wanting. 


Verbals. l'^'^'"'- 

Participles. ^^^^• 

Present Perfect. 


Seeing. 

Seen. 

Having been seen. 


Have neither per- 
son nor number. 



THE ADVERB. 



19. The Functions of tlie Adverb. — The adverb has 
been defined as a word used to modify the meaning of a 
verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Now, both the modi- 
fier and the element modified may be a ivord, o. phrase, or a 
clause. This fact makes it specially important that the stu- 
dent should endeavor to become expert in deciding what 
each element of a sentence does, in order that he may know 
what it is. 

Almost any part of speech may be used adverbially : 

1. A Non?i.—Y{Q is €\yi feet tall. {Six feet tall = tall 
to the extent of, or \iy six feet.) We waited an hour. I 
care nothing for his opinion. (Xothing = by 7iothing, or 
to the extent of nothing.) It cost a dollar. (A dollar 
= to the amount of ^ dollar.) 

This is the use of a noun as an adverbial adjective. 

Nouns used to denote measure of time, dtsta?ice, value, 
weight, etc. are the fragments of adverbial phrases, and 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 19 

being used with the functions that the entire phrases would 
have, they must be regarded as adverbs. 

2. A Pronoun. — What with labor and worry he was com- 
pletely worn out. (Here zvhat = partly or some such 
adverb. ) 

3. An Adjective. — The richer he gets the stingier he 
seems. (The — tJie = by Jioiv initch — by so much., or equiv- 
alent correlative adverbial elements.) The sentence in full 
would be nearly, '' By how much richer he gets, by so m-uch 
stingier he seems. " 

4. A Verb. — Clink., clank ^ go the hammers now. Bang., 
went the gun. 

5. A Verbal. — We Y^e^re dripping vjei. Being good, is less 
easy than seeming good. 'TwsiS passing strange. 

6. A Preposition. — The tide came in and went out several 
times during our stay. He walked before and his wife behind. 

7. A Conjunction. — Could he but understand, he would act 
differently. We are but gathering flowers in your meadow. 
(But — only or merely.) 

30. Adjectives and Adverbs With Certain Terbs. 

It has been explained that all verbs express in varying measure 
both action and the corresponding state of the actor. Thus, 
in the sentence, TJie man walks., the verb walks is equivalent 
to is zvalking, in which ivalking describes the state of the 
acting subject, as if we should say, He is a ^valking man. 
In such cases the participle is an exact equivalent of a predi- 
cate adjective. Hence, walks expresses action and implies 
an accompanying state or condition of the actor. 

Sometimes the action is so prominent that the state is not 
even noticed. In such a case, if a modifier is associated with 
the verb, it must be an adverb used to modify the action side 
or function of the verb. 

He walks gracefully. The fish swims rapidly. 

Again, it may be the state that is to be especially noticed, 
in which case an adjective is used with the verb. The fol- 
lowing diagrams will make clear the distinction between 
these two uses of the verb : 



2U GRAMMAR. § 19 




The (patient) [breathes] rapidlv. The (flower) [is]- 

t I 



Besides these extreme cases, there are verbs that express 
both action and state so strongly that the modifiers of both 
kinds are used ^\-ith them. In such cases, the adverbial 
modifiers are generally phrases or clauses. 



He lies in the hospital sicL We arrived safe and sound in New Tork. 

T ^ 1 

Here, the adjectives sick^ saft\ and sound denote the con- 
dition of the subject, and not the inanncr. fi}}u\ or place of 
the action. 

Many verbs in which the action is prominent are followed 
by adjectives denoting a state of that which the subject 
represents. Some examples follow : 

He /"c'/Z bad. They looked sick. She sat erects serene, and quiet. 
We reached home safe. The milk turned sour. Our blood ran cold. 
Shut the door tight. Open your eyes wide. Lie still and keep quiet. 

21, Adverbs Classified Aeeorcliug to TTse. — Classified 
according to use, adverbs are of four kinds: (1) simple; 
(•2) interi-ogative ; (3) conjunctive ; {^) modal. 

Definition. — A simple adverb is an adi^crb that is joined 
directly to the element modified by it. 

Go quickly. Come here. Gaily to burgeon and broadly to grow. 

Definition. — An interrogative adverb is an adverb used 
to inquire concerning the time^ place, manner, cause, etc. of an 
action or a state. 

When did you come ? How is your father ? IVJurefore did you 
return ? Whither did they go ? Whence came you ? 

Definition. — A conjunctive adverb is an adverb tJiat 

has the double function of an adverb and a conjunction. 

Do as you are told. I know a bank -whereon the wild thyme grows. 
Where thou goest, I will go. When I die, put near me something 
that has loved the light. Whither I go ye cannot follow. 



I 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 21 

The conjunctive adverb modifies the verb in the clause it 
introduces. The clause itself may have the function of a 
noitn, an adjective^ or an adverb. 

Thus, as you are told, in the sentence above, is an adverbial 
modifier of do, and as modifies are told. In the next sentence, 
the clause is an adjective modifier of bank., and whereon mod- 
ifies groivs. In the sentence, ' ' Tell us when you are going, " 
the conjunctive adverb wJien modifies are going., and the 
entire clause is the object of tell. 

Deflnition. — A iifiodal adverb is an adverb that modifies 
the meaning of an entire sentence. 

Perhaps I shall be in New York tomorrow. He has doubtless 
repented his action by this time. I shall certamly see him. 

Here perhaps modifies I shall be in New York tomorrow. 
Any word used in this way to narrozv or restrict the meaning 
of an entire sentence or clause is a modal adverb. The sen- 
tence given above may be narrowed or limited in meaning 
by many expressions similar in function to perhaps. They 
all change the total effect or mode of the sentences upon the 
mind, and are all modal adverbs. This same work may be 
done by a phrase or by a clause. The modal character of 
phrases and clauses is not usually mentioned in grammar. 
It is regarded as sufficient to say that they are adverbial. 

22, HoAv to Distinguisli tlie Modal Adverb. — It is 

not always easy to recognize the modal adverb. In doing 
this, the student may be aided by knowing that it has some 
marked peculiarities besides modifying or changing the 
meaning of the entire clause or sentence in which it is used. 
These peculiarities are : 

1. The modal adverb may be placed almost anyzvherc in 
the clause or sentence it modifies. 

This is not the case with an ordinary adverb, which must 
be placed as near the modified element as possible. Indeed, 
one of the most important matters in composition is the 
placing of modifiers, especially those that are adverbial. In 
the case of the modal adverb, while it may occupy any one 



22 GRAMMAR. § 19 

of several places in a vSeutence, there is generally one position 
Avhere its effect is best. The modal Si&Yevh fortiuiately may- 
be put in any one of the places indicated by carets in the 
following sentences: 

Fortunately, my employer understands all the facts of the 
■^ ^ ' ^ A A A 

case . 
A 
Perhaps, a sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows 

keener with constant use . 
A 

2. Tlie connection between a modal adverb and the sentence 
in which it occurs is not close. 

In consequence of this fact, the modal adverb should 
usually be set off by commas. When this punctuation is not 
required, it is dwing to the fact that the adverb is used, not 
as purely niodal^ but as in some measure simple. The fol- 
lowing illustrations will make the difference of use clear: 

Modal. — Decidedly, the scientists are wrong in their opinion. 
Simple. — The scientists are decidedly wrong in Iheir opinion. 

In the first example, decidedly modifies the meaning of 
the entire sentence — changes its general effect or mode. In 
the next example, it is a mere adverb modifying the mean- 
ing of the single word ivrong — it tells Jiozv or in what degree 
the scientists are ivrong. 

It should be noted that almost any modal adverb may be 
used as a simple adverb; and, on the other hand, many 
adverbs, ordinarily simple, may be used with modal value 
or effect. 

23. Classes of Modal Adverbs. — Modal adverbs may 
be divided into various classes. Some of these follow: 

1. General Emphasis. — Manifestly, clearly, decidedly, 
doubtless, undoubtedly, positively, evidently, plainly, unmis- 
takably, palpably, apparently, obviously, etc. 

2. Affirmation. — Aye, yea, yes, verily, indeed, certainly, 
surely, imquestionably, by all means, etc. 

3. N'egation. — No, nay, not, by no means, in no wise, 
not at all, etc. 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 23 

4. Doubt. — Perhaps, perad venture, ]Drobably, possibly, 
perchance, etc. 

5. Inference. — Hence, consequently, therefore, whence, 
then, wherefore, accordingly, etc. 

34. Adverbs Classified According to Meaning. — 

With respect to meanings simple adverbs have been divided 
into many classes. Some of the most important of these are : 

1. Adverbs of Time. — Ever, now, never, lately, today, 
still, instantly, henceforth, already, hereafter, presently, 
soon, once, yesterday, often, seldom, etc. 

2. Adverbs of Place. — Here, there, near, yonder, hence, 
thence, down, off, back, etc. 

3. Adverbs of Manner. — Gladly, slowly, well, respect- 
fully, truly, etc. 

4. Adverbs of Degree. — Much, little, very, quite, greatly, 
more, etc. 

5. Adverbs of Comparison. — So, as, than, the, too, 
rather, etc. 

I am so sick that etc. He is as good as his accuser. The 
first as modifies good; the second is a conjunctive adverb; 
both are adverbs of comparison ; and taken together, they 
are correlative adverbs. 

The more the merrier. This old saying, when in full sen- 
tence form, would be somewhat as follows: The more they 
are the merrier they are = By wJiat they are more by that 
they are merrier. It is clear, therefore, that the — the = by 
what — by that; these are adverbial phrases, the first of 
which modifies more^ and the second, merrier. Hence, 
the — the are correlative adverbs used for comparison. 

25. The Responsives. — The words yes, no, aye, nay, 
certainly^ and some others, together with certain phrases, 
such as, by all means, by no means, not at all, certainly not, 
decidedly not, are used in answering questions, and arc for 
that reason called responsives. They arc usually calloil 
adverbs; but they are really substitutes for entire sentences, 
and strictly belong to no part of speech. Like interjections. 



2-t GRAMMAR. § 19 

they have no grammatical relation to the sentence to which 
they reply, but they have a logical relation to it; that is, 
they relate to it /';/ thought. 

Shall you vote tomorrow ? Yes. Certainly. By all means. 

The answers to the foregoing question are each equivalent 
to the sentence, " I shall vote tomorrow." They differ only 
in the matter of emphasis. In parsing such expressions, it 
is sufficient to call them responsive s^ give, as nearly as possi- 
ble, the sentence for which they are a substitute, and say that 
they are usually classed as adverbs. 

Among other expressions used as responsives are, perhaps, 
probably, perchance, nearly, quite, surely, possibly, exactly, 
precisely, lerily, etc. Indeed, almost any of the modal 
adverbs may be used as responsives. which is another test 
of modality. 

26. Comparison of Adverbs. — Many adverbs derived 
from adjectives of quality are compared. A few have real 
inflections, but the comparison is usually made by prefixing 
more and inost, or less and least; as. 

Positive. — soon fast calmly earnestly 

Comparative. — sooner . faster more calmly less earnestly 
Superlative. — soonest fastest most calmly least earnestly 

The following adverbs are of irregular comparison : 

Positive. — well ill much nigh or near 

Comparative. — better worse more nearer 

Superlative. — best worst most next 

Positive. — forth far late 

Comparative. — further farther later 

Superlative. — furthest farthest last or latest 

2 T . The Adverb *• There." — The word there is properly 
an adverb of place, but it is much used with the notion of 
place nearly or quite gone from the meaning of the word. 
It is then a kind of anticipatire subject of such verbs as be, 
seem, appear, and of many others ; as. 

Tilt re ^vas once a king. There sat by the door an old man. There 
lived many years ago a verj- wise man. 



I 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 25 

In such sentences, there is an expletive^ that is, a zvord 
redundant or unnecessary , for, in all such cases, the real sub- 
ject may be placed first and the adverb omitted. 

A very wise man lived, etc. An old man sat, etc. 

When the construction is interrogative or relative, the 
expletive follows the verb ; as. 

When went there by an age since the great flood but it was famed 
for more than one man ? What need was there unsatisfied ? 

From denoting- place, the word there has come to mean 
mere existence, although it usually carries with it some faint 
notion of in that place. In parsing, the student should say 
only that it is an adverbial expletive used as an anticipative 
subject. 

This construction is one of the idioms of our language ; so 
called, because it is peculiar to the English — exactly the same 
usage not being found in any other language. 

2 8 . Phrase and Clause Adverbs. — Several words taken 
together, forming clauses and prepositional phrases, may be 
used as adverbs. 

1. Compound Adverbs. — Now or never, by and by, 
sooner or later, once upon a time, long ago, forever and 
ever, etc. 

2. Prepositional Phrases. — In vain, at length, by degrees, 
according to agreement, in like manner, by fair or foul means, 
etc. 

Many such phrases are equivalent to simple adverbs. Thus, 
in vain = vainly ; by and by = soon ; once upon a time 
= formerly. 

3. Adverbial Clauses. — He fell where he fought. We 
shall do better whe7i the clouds roll away. 

29. Exercise. — Point out the adverbs in the following sentences, 
and tell the class to whigh each belongs and what it modifies: 

1. He always acted generously and considerately even to liis 
enemies. 



Q 



They laugh best that laugh last. 



G GRAMMAR. § 19 

3. Solemnly, mournfully, dealing its dole, 
The curfew bell is beginning to toll, 

4. Warmly and broadly the south winds are blowing 

Over the sky. 



One after another the white clouds are fleeting. 



G. Then some one said, " We will return no more " ; 

And all at once they sang, " Our island home 
Is far beyond the wave; we will no longer roam." 

7. Surely, surely, slumber is more sweet than toil, the shore 
Than labor in the deep mid-ocean. 

8. Out flew the many-folded lash in his hand ; over the backs of the 
startled steeds it writhed and hissed, and hissed and writhed again and 
again ; and though it fell not, there w^ere both sting and menace in its 
quick report; and as the man passed thus from quiet to resistless 
action, instantly, not one, but the four as one, answered with a leap 
that landed them alongside the Roman's car. 

9. Low and soft, O, very low and soft, 
Crooned the blackbird in the orchard croft. 

10. Certainly, there can be but one opinion about a matter so 
simple. 

80. Parsing the Adverb. — An adverb is parsed by 
mentioning : 

1. TJie class in which it belongs — simple, interrogative, 
conjimctive, modal. 

2. The clement that it modifies. It should be stated also 
in what respect the element is modified ; as, time, place, man- 
ner, inference, etc. 

3. Its degree of comparison — positive, comparative, super- 
lative. 

An adverb consisting of a phrase or clause may be men- 
tioned as being simply an adverbial phrase or clause, modi- 
fying the meaning of some other element of the sentence. 

31. Exercise. — Analyze the following sentences and parse the 
adverbs : 

1. I was a poetess only last year. 

2. Make me a child again just for tonight. 

3. Over my heart in the years that are flown, 
No love like mother-love ever has shone. 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 27 

4. There is a yard dog, too, that barks at all comers. 

5. Suddenly a hand seized the beetle, and turned him round and 
round. 

6. Without, the ground was entirely covered with snow, and the 
wind blew in sudden gusts sharply and fiercely. 

7. There was once a woman that lived all alone with only one child, 
a very beautiful little daughter. 

8. It may indeed happen, and, in fact, often does happen, that the 
very poor are much happier than the very rich. 

9. Therefore, first of all, I tell you earnestly and authoritatively 
that you must get into the habit of looking intensely at words and of 
assuring yourself of their meaning. 

10. Think carefully and bravely over these things, and you will 
find them wholly true. 

11. One does not usually think of the winds as if they are very 
thoughtful and deliberate. 

12. There is not a fault or a folly of my life that does not rise 
against me to take away my chances of success and happiness. 



TABLE OF THE ADYERB, 



r 1. Simple- 



adverbs J 



Time — When, then, soon. 
Place — Where, there. 
Mantier — Quickly, kindly, slowly. 
[ Degree — Quite, very, nearly. 

2. Interrogative — When ? where ? how ? 

3. Modal — Perhaps, certainly, therefore. 

4. Conjunctive — Where, how, why. 

5. Adverbial Objective — Worth a dime, rest an hoitr. 



THE PREPOSITION. 

32. The Function of the Preposition. — The prepo- 
sitions were originally adverbs, and most of them are still 
used very frequently as such. When this is the case, the 
object is omitted and the preposition does duty as an 
adverbial modifier. 



28 GRAMMAR. g 111 

Turn io (the work), my men. Is the doctor /;/ (his office), John ? 
All went aboard (the ship). He is a good man to have around ( ). 
We were led inside, shown aroinid, and bowed oiti very promptly. 

Many words that are usually given in the lists of preposi- 
tions are still used as adverbs. Even when the preposition 
has an object, it often has in itself a strong adverbial value. 

We lived near the river and often rowed across //. 

Near in this sentence does the greater part of the adver- 
bial work of the phrase near the river. This is shown to be 
the case by our readiness to accept near or aeross alone as 
an adverb, without demanding that it shall be followed by a 
noun or a pronoun specifying in what the relation of near- 
ness ends. Thus, They live near. He jumped across. 

Notwithstanding this strong- adverbial function and 
frequent use as an adverb, these words, to the number of 
about one hundred, are called prepositions if they have with 
them an object ; in such case they form a prepositional phrase 
having the value of an adjective or an adverb. 

Adjective Phrases. — A letter from home, a rose -witlioiit 
thorns, a house Tv^ith seven gables. 

Adverbial Phrases. — Ran against the fence, quiet dur- 
ing the service, floating ^vith the current. 

Besides its function as an adverb, which it has not entirely 
lost, the chief work of the preposition is to bring unrelated 
w^ords into relation. This has been fully illustrated in 
another place, and need not be enlarged upon here. 

The preposition is said to govern the noun or pronoun 
with the help of which it forms an adjective or adverbial 
phrase. By this is meant that the preposition has, with 
respect to case, a kind of governing or compelling power 
over its noun or pronoun. This object of the preposition 
must be in the objective case. The pronoun shows this 
fact by its form; but, since the form of a noiin is the same 
in both the nominative and the objective case, we must 
judge of its case from that of the pronoun when used in 
the same way. 

They took the hooV from John and gave it to me. 



§19 



GRAMMAR. 



29 



33. List of Prepositions. — The following is a list of 
the most commonly used prepositions : 



aboard 


beyond 


pending 


about 


by 


regarding 


above 


concerning 


respecting 


across 


down 


round 


after 


during 


save 


against 


ere 


saving 


along 


except 


since 


amid 


excepting 


through 


amidst 


for 


throughout 


among 


from 


till 


amongst 


in 


to 


around 


into 


touching 


at 


mid 


toward 


athwart 


midst 


towards 


bating 


near 


under 


before 


notwithstanding 


underneath 


behind 


of 


until 


below 


off 


unto 


beneath 


on 


up 


beside 


out 


upon 


besides 


over 


with 


between 


overthwart 


within 


betwixt 


past 


without 



34. Classes of Prepositions. — With reference to their 
adverbial value, prepositions have been divided into 
several groups : 

1. Place. — This class includes : {a) mere rest in a place; 
in, on, at, near, by ; {b) place ^ zvith motion and direction; to, 
into, towards, from; (c) place, ivith direction; up, down, 
through, above, below, across, etc. 

2. Time. — Since, till, until, during, after, pending, past, etc. 

3. Agency or Means. — With, by, through, by means of, 
by virtue of, etc. 

4. Cause., End, or Purpose. — For, from, for the sake of, 
on account of, etc. 

Besides the foregoing, there are many miscellaneous 
classes, but these have little practical importance. The 



:K) GRAMxMAR. § I'j 

matter of chief concern is that the student shall be able to 
recognize the preposition and determine the work it does in 
each place where it is used. 

35. The Object of a Preposition. — The object of a 
preposition may be any equivalent of a noun — any expres- 
sion used with the value of a noun. Hencv% the object of a 
preposition may be a zcord^ 3.phrasCy or a ciansc. 

1. A XoHii or a Pronoun. — He went zvith me to Xe^v 
York. 

'I. A Verbal or an Infinitive. — Tired of soAving for 
otliei"s to reap. We protested against being detained. 

3. An Adjective or an Adverb. — The taste is betiveen 
sweet and sour. His strength corner from above. It has 
lasted from then u)itil uoav. 

4. Phrase. — The snake crept from under the house- 
The noise comes from over the Avay. They returned after 
visiting Rome. He gloried /;/ having been President. 

5. A Xoun Clause. — They inquired coneerning Avhere 
Ave ]iad been. Judging /r^?;/ Avhat he said, we are wrong. 

36. Pai*sing the Preposition. — A preposition is parsed 
by stating : 

1. That it is a preposition. 

2. That it brings certain elements into relation. 

3. That the phrase in which it is the leading word modi- 
fies the meaning of a certain other sentential element. 

4. Its classification with respect to adverbial value (see 
Art. 34) may be given when it is plainly marked. 

3 i . Exercise. — 1. Construct sentences containing the following 
words used as prepositions, and aftersvards construct other sentences 
in which the same words occur as adverbs: near, over, through, 
against, by, off, under, above, beside, before. 

2. "Write five sentences each containing a prepositional phrase used 
as an adjective ; also, five other sentences each having a prepositional 
phrase used as an adverb. 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 31 

3. Write two sentences containing a clause object of a preposition. 

4. Write two sentences each containing one prepositional phrase 
the meaning of which is modified by another prepositional phrase. 

5. Find suitable objects of the prepositions: to confer upon, to 
confer with; to die of, to dX^for; to share i7i, to share of; to strive 
for, to strive against; to choose between, to choose amo7ig, to choose 
for; to have confidence iji, to have confidence of; convenient to, con- 
venient/ii'r. 

38. Exercise. — Parse the prepositions in the following sentences ; 
and, by means of diagrams, analyze the sentences themselves: 

1. How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood. 

2. She sought her lord, and found him where he strode 
About the hall, among his dogs. 

3^ ******* \^^Q shameless noon 

Was clashed and hammered from a hundred towers. 

4. Man comes and tills the soil and lies beneath, 
And after many summers dies the swan. 

5. Through the shadow of the globe we sweep into the younger day. 

6. If, through years of folly, you misguide your own life, you must 
not expect Providence to bring round everything at last for the best. 

7. The sunset glow of the maples met the sunset glow of the sky. 

8. Many a summer the grass has grown green. 
Blossomed and faded our faces between, 

Yet with strong yearning and passionate pain 
Long I tonight for your presence again. 

9. Among the beautiful pictures that hang on Memory's wall 
Is one of a dim old forest that seemeth the best of all, 

10. The perfect life develops in a circle and terminates where it 
begins. 



TABIiE OF THE PREPOSITION^. 

Time— At night, by noon, after midnight. 
Place — hi the army, into the house, iip07i the mountain. 
Ageticy — By force, with a gun, by means ^persuasion. 
CLASSES \ Reason — For his health, at my request. 

Possession — The wife of vay friend, a ship ^^ France. 
Exclusion — Without mercy, against my wishes. 
Material— Of gold. 

Many other classes of prepositions are i^iven, but no classi- 
fication includes them all. 



32 GRAMMAR. § 19 

THE CONJUXCTIOX. 

39. Functions of the Prei^osition and tlie Conjunc- 
tion Compared. — The preposition is usually defined as a 
word used to connect ivords^ and to show the relation 
between them. It is, therefore, a coimectivc^ but its most 
important function is to denote relation^ and this it gener- 
ally does very definitely. The conjunction also is a connect- 
ive, and it usually indicates more or less distinctly some 
relation between the elements it unites. Both the conjunc- 
tion and the preposition have something adverbial in the 
work they do; and, in the case of the cotijunctive adverb^ 
this function is generally stronger than its connective value. 

During the growth and improvement of language, the 
conjunction was one of the last parts of speech to appear, 
and its first use was in connecting x^rj simple expressions, 
such as a noun with a noun^ an adjective with an adjective, 
a verb with a verb, etc. 

The most useful of the conjunctions are those that have 
nearly or quite lost their adverbial value, such as and, or, 
nor, if, lest, than, for, also, and a few others. The equiva- 
lents of these conjunctions are found in all languages, and, 
without their aid, connected speech would be impossible. 

When, later, it became necessary to connect phrases and 
clauses, and indicate at the same time relation between the 
connected elements, other conjunctions were made, generally 
from adverbs, and most of them retained much of their 
adverbial value. 

Be careful lest yon fall. I shall go, tliough. it rain. 

i still ) 
yet >■ he viay recover. 



( still ) 
I. yet 
( but ) 



In all these cases the clause introduced by the conjunction 
modifies the meaning of the other clause, or of some element 
in it. Lest you fall denotes a reason or a purpose ; it is very 
nearly equivalent to not to fall, which is plainly an adverbial 
modifier of careful. In a similar way though it rain is 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 33 

very nearly the equivalent of the adverb certainly, I shall 
certainly go. 

The differences in function by which a preposition may be 
distinguished from a conjunction have been fully treated in 
another place, to which the student is referred (see Graminar^ 
Part 2). 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

40. Conjunctions are divided into two principal classes, 
coordinating and subordinating. 

41. Coordinating Conjunctions. — The word coordi- 
nating means "making of equal rank or importance." The 
conjunctions of this class are so called because they unite two 
elements without at the same time reducing one of them to 
the inferior rank of a mere m^odifier of the meaning of the 
other element. Hence, these conjunctions have very little 
of the adverbial quality left in them, and serve mainly to 
connect. This is wholly true of and and nearly so of all the 
other coordinating conjunctions. But conjunctions of this 
class, by taking on the adverbial function, shade off into 
subordinating conjunctions so gradually that it is impossible 
to draw a line with any certainty between the two classes. 

Definition. — A coordinating: conjunction is a conjunc- 
tion used to conjiect tzuo sentential elements so as to make them 
of equal grammatical rank or value. 

Bread and meat. Wise or foolish. To sleep, likewise to dream. 
He was a partner ; besides, he was fully trusted. You have seriously 
blundered ; Jiioreover, you have violated the law. 

Coordinating conjunctions are subdivided into several 
groups : 

1. Copulative. — The word copulative vciQ^2iXvs>€\m.-^\j "uni- 
ting," " adding something to something else. " These con- 
junctions have very much the effect of the sign of addition 
in arithmetic. With most of them, however, there is some 
adverbial value besides their copulative or connective effect. 
Examples are: and, also, likeivise, further, besides, moreover, 
as well as, in addition to, etc. 



I 



U GRAMMAR. g 19 

2. Alternative. — Alternative conjunctions are such as 
imply a eJioice^ either granted or denied. They are or^ nor, 
either — or^ neither — nor, zuhether — or, and some others. 

3. Adversative. — These imply something adverse or in 
opposition. The following are the most common : bnt, yet, 
still, only (when nearly equivalent to bnt), nevertheless, pro- 
vided, although, however, for all that, after all, at the same 
time. 

He i-s sick, only he does not like to admit it. 

You have done much damage ; still, we will overlook that fact. 

4. Illative. — The conjunctions of this class include such 
as are used in reasoning to denote, reason, inferetice, cojzclu- 
sion, result, and the like. 

Therefore, henee, whenee, so, thus, eonsequently, accord- 
ifigb''> "doherefore, then, so that, so then, etc. , are examples. 

43. Subordinating Conjunctions. — We have seen that 
coordinating conjunctions may connect words, phrases, or 
clauses. This, however, is not the case with the subordina- 
ting conjunction, for it is almost invariably used to unite 
clauses. It does this in such a manner as to make one of the 
clauses a mere modifier; and in consequence of this inferior or 
subordinate relation of the modifying clause, the conjunction 
that introduces it is called a subordinating conjunction. 

You will fall if you are not careful. He was dismissed because 
he was incompete7it. He will live tlioug'li he is dead. 

In all the foregoing sentences, the subordinate clauses 
have the value of adverbs; and, like modal adverbs, they 
generally modify the meaning of the entire independent or 
principal clause. 

Subordinate clauses are often much abbreviated; and for 
this reason they may often look like phrases. But the 
omitted elements must always be very plainly implied. "If 
contradicted, he becomes very angry. " " He works steadily, 
though without valuable result." 

Definition. — A subordinating conjunction is a con- 
junction used to introduce a clause that modifies an indc' 
pcjident clause, or some element of an independent clause. 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 35 

Subordinating conjunctions, in consequence of differences 
in adverbial meaning or value, are subdivided into the fol- 
lowing classes: 

1. Place. — Where and whence^ and their compounds with 
ever and soever. 

2. Time. — When and its compounds; also, zvhile, as, till, 
until, ere, before, after, since. 

3. Cause and Condition. — Because, zvhereas, inasmuch as, 
since, as, for, if, unless, except, notwithstanding, though, etc. 

4. Purpose. — That, so that, in order that, etc. 

5. Comparison. — Than, as — as, so — as. 

In analyzing sentences that contain correlative conjunc- 
tions, that is, conjunctions that go in pairs, it is necessary 
to consider separately each word of a pair. For example, in 
the sentences He is as good as he is brave, and He is not so 
sorry as I am, the first element in each pair is an adverb 
merely, and the second a subordinating conjunction or a con- 
junctive adverb. It is more in their adverbial functions than 
in their character as conjunctions that they are correlatives. 

43. Correlatives. — Many pairs of words are called cor- 
relative conjunctions, or, more briefly, correlatives, because 
each word points or relates to the other in the way that is 
called mutual. The following is nearly a complete list of 
them: as — as, as — so, both — and, either — or, neither — nor, 
so — that, though — yet, if—then, whether — or, so — as, such — as, 
such — that, not only — but also, 

44:, Exercise. — 1. Write five sentences each consisting of clauses 
connected by coordinating conjunctions. 

2. Write five sentences each containing one or more subordinating 
conjunctions. 

3. Unite the following separate statements by means of (1) coordi- 
nating conjunctions; (2) subordinating conjunctions: 

{a) The earth is round. Men have sailed around it. 

{b) The ship sailed around Cape Horn. It entered the Pacific 
Ocean. 

{c) John went fishing. He had been sent to school. He was pun- 
ished. 



36 GRAMMAR. § 19 

{d) A fox saw a crow with a piece of meat. He asked the crow to 
sing one of his beautiful songs. The fox's object was to get the meat. 

{e) Jane prepared for school. Mary washed the dishes. Mary 
swept the floor. 

4. Use the following words as subordinating conjunctions: pro- 
vided, so, as, than, for, because, except, since, after, while, though. 

5. Write sentences containing the following words as adverbs ; then 
write other sentences containing the same words as conjunctions: 
before, since, so, how, only, but, where, whence, hence, then. 

45. Exercise. — Mention the conjunctions in the following, and 
tell what elements they connect : 

1. I shall never forget as long as I live the look of despair that 
came into his face. 

2. Since he gives so good an account of the matter, it is perhaps 
safe to trust him. 

3. Let him have the goods if he can give good and satisfactory 
security that he will pay the bill when it becomes due. 

4. He has talent and industry; therefore, he will succeed even 
where his predecessor failed. 

5. Yet Ernest had had no teacher save only that the Great Stone 
Face became one to him. {Save is a preposition having a clause object. 
This clause has only as a modifier.) 

6. So the people ceased to honor him while he lived, and quietly 
consigned him to forgetfulness after he died. 

7. Creation was not finished till the poet came to interpret and so 
finish it. 

8. " The tent is mine," said Yussouf, "but no more 
Than it is God's; come in and be at rest" 

9L For time at last sets all things even — 

And if we do but watch the hour 
There never yet was human power 

Which could evade, if unforgiven, 
The patient search and vigil long 

Of him who treasures up a wrong. 

10, And besides, there were pear trees that flung down bushels 
upon bushels of heavy pears ; and peach trees, which in a good j^ear 
tormented me with peaches, neither to be eaten nor kept, nor, without 
labor and perplexity, to be given away. 

46. Pai-sin^ the Coiijunctiou. — The conjunction is 
parsed by stating: 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 37 

1. That it is a conjunction. This should be followed by 
mentioning- whether it is coordinating or subordinating. 

2. What it connects. If it is subordinating, the student 
should tell which is the modifying, and which the modified, 
element. 

If the connective is a conjunctive adverb, it not only intro- 
duces a modifying clause, but modifies the meaning of the 
verb in this clause. These particulars should all be stated. 

47. Complex and Compound Sentences. — It is 

important to distinguish between coordinating and subordi- 
nating conjunctions, for it is the connective that determines 
whether a sentence is complex or compound. Coordinating 
conjunctions connect elements of equal rank, and when these 
elements are clauses., the resulting sentence is compound. 
If, however, there is only one leading clause and one or 
more subordinate clauses, the sentence is complex. 

It is important to observe that subordinate clauses may be 
connected by coordinating conjunctions. This is illustrated 
in the following sentences : 

When the night is dark and the air is biting cold, as Avell as 
when the moon is shining and the air pleasant, we must set out upon 
our regular trip. 

If he has the money and can spare it, he will certainly pay you. 

Any connective that has a strong adverbial or pronominal 
value must, in consequence, be a subordinating connective 
when used to connect clauses. 



TABIiE OF THE CONJUNCTION^. 

Copulative — And, also, likewise. 
Alternative — Or, nor, either. 
Adversative — But, yet, still. 
Illative — Consequently, therefore. 

Place — Where, whence. 
Time — When, as, until, shice. 
Cause — Why, wherefore, because. 
Purpose — That, so that, in order that. 
Comparison — Than, so — as. 





' 1. Coordinate 


m 




H 




O) 




m \ 




< 




y\ 




O 






. 2. Subordinate < 



38 GRAMMAR. § 19 

THE IXTEIl,JECTIOX. 

48. The Interjection Is Xot a Part of Speecli. — We 

have seen that the sentence is the ''unit of thought," and 
that it is composed of elements each having some part or 
function to fill in the sentence. Such words are called, for 
that reason, parts of speech. Now, the interjection does not 
have such a work to do. In general, it does not enter the 
sentence, but stands alone. It is not related to other words 
— it is independent. In a kind of way, it is a stibstitute for 
an entire sentence. The interjection is not, therefore, a part 
of speech, although it is generally so regarded. It has no 
inflections, and no sentential function; hence, in parsing, it 
is sufficient to state merely that it is an interjection. 

49. Tlie Use of tlie Interjection. — Savages, uncul- 
tured people, and children make much use of the interjection. 
Strong feeling of every kind — hatred, joy, fear, anger — is 
characteristic of youth and of others lacking in culture. As 
people advance in refinement and education, emotional 
expression diminishes in intensity and frequency, and the 
expression of thought becomes more formal and exact. The 
interjection is never found in scientific and other works in 
which pure thought, exposition, and argument are the chief 
requisites. We should be much astonished to find it in a 
legal treatise, or in the charge of a judge, or in the opinion 
of a physician. Allied to the use of the interjection is the 
practice of slang. Most people of refinement object to slangs 
and for reasons very similar to those that are given above 
against the use of interjections. 

50. The Thought Expressed by Interjections. — 

The pure interjection is almost entirely empty of meaning in 
itself, and is dependent for significance upon the tone and 
the circumstances in which it is uttered. For example, the 
interjection oh^ which is found in nearly all languages, may 
express y^j' or .9^rr^w, surprise or fear ^ or almost any emotion, 
pleasurable or painful ; but the thought to be inferred must 
be gathered from the tones, the gestures, and the manner of 



§ 19 GRAMMAR. 39 

the speaker, as well as from the occasion upon which it is 
used. The same is true of many other interjections. 

Many words regularly used in sentences as parts of speech 
are often employed as interjections. Some examples follow : 

Nouns. — Nonsense/ Folly/ Glory/ Horror / Shame/ Heavens/ 
Adjectives. — Good/ Too bad/ Sad/ Absurd/ Ridiculous / 
Excellent / 

Verbs.— Hist/ Hush/ Hark/ Behold/ See/ Look/ Hail I 
Adverbs.— Well / Indeed/ Why/ What/ How/ 

Many expressions imitative of natural sounds are used as 
interjections; as, 

Baa / Bow-wow / Whippoorwill / Buzz / Bang / Crash / Pop / 
These last are entirely empty of meaning-, but nearly all 
interjections made of the regular parts of speech carry with 
them something of their usual meaning. The interjection is 
commonly the most significant word that would occur in a 
sentence when the full meaning is expressed. In the case 
of those derived from verbs it is often better to regard them 
as verbs. 

51. Exclamatory Phrases. — Interjections often con- 
sist of several words in combination, but always without full 
sentential structure. Such expressions are parsed simply as 
interjections. Some examples are : 

O dear me / Poor fellow / A las the day / Rome/ O King, live 
forever / How sad / 

In parsing an ordinary interjection, it is enough to state 
that it is an interjection, and that it is independent in con- 
struction. If it is clearly significant of a definite meaning, 
the student should mention the fact, and give a sentence 
expressing this meaning. 

53. Exclamatory Series. — A gradual increase or dim- 
inution of feeling may be indicated by a series of interjec- 
tions, each successive one having after it one more or one 
less exclamation mark than the preceding. 

Thieves! Police!! Help!!! Murder!!!! 

" Oh ! Oh ! ! Oh ! ! ! Ah ! ! Ah-h-h ! "—the tooth was out. 



Punctuation and Capitalization. 



PUNCTUATION. 



I 



GElS^ERAIi CO]NrSIDERATIO:N^S. 

1. Punctuation. — Punctuation (Latin, punctuin^ *'a 
point") is the division of written or printed matter by sig- 
nificant marks or points to indicate the connection and 
dependence of its parts. The chief purpose of punctuation 
is to render clearer and more definite the meaning to be con- 
veyed. The system of punctuation in use at the present 
time was entirely "unknown to the ancients. An imperfect 
scheme devised by Aristophanes, a grammarian of Alexandria, 
is said to have been introduced among the Greeks a little more 
than two centuries before Christ. No improvement upon this 
was made until the year 1500, when Aldus Manutius, a learned 
printer of Venice, perfected our present system and exempli- 
fied it in the celebrated and • beautiful "Aldine" edition of 
the Greek and Latin classics. 



BIVISIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

2. Considered with respect to use or purpose, punctua- 
tion may be logical, rhetorical, grammatical, etymological, 
and for emphasis and reference. 

3. Ijojnfical Pvmctuation. — In a printed or written doc- 
ument of any kind, those elements that serve to connect its 

§20 

For notice of the copyright, see page iininedialely folhiwiiig llie title page. 



PUXCTUATIOX AXD CAPITALIZATION. § -20 

sentences and paragraphs into one whole — to give unity — 
are logical in character. This unity or continuity is secured 
by the use of a great variety of expressions that point back- 
wards to something that has been said before. Thus, consider 
the sentence, 

We may be very sure, therefore, that heat is motioiL 

The word therefore is grammatically unnecessary: its 
effect is to establish a logical connection between this sen- 
tence and some arguments or illustrations that precede. 
Expressions of this kind may be considered as belonging to a 
paragraph or an entire composition rather than to a sentence : 
their function is logical (/.oyof, logos, *'a discourse") rather 
than gram ma tit a I. Examples of these are such as the fol- 
lowing: indeed, moreover, consequently, zvhence, first, sec- 
ondly, finally, in fact, at all events, and innumerable other 
words, phrases, and clauses. Many others are used to pre- 
pare the mind for something that is to follow — they are 
anticipative. Such are, to icit, namely, as follows, as, thus, 
viz., etc., hence, yet, in fine. ^lost of these elements point 
in both directions. As has been said, these transitional or 
logical elements form no necessary part of the sentences in 
which they occur; they are, in a sense, independent, and 
their independence or separateness should generally be indi- 
cated by punctuation. 

4. Rhetorieal Pimctnation. — Closely allied in function 
to these logical elements are others called rhetorical. They 
are used, not to establish unity among the sentences compo- 
sing a paragraph or a discourse, but to denote some pecidiarity 
in the way the meaning expressed by a sentence is to be 
taken. Their general effect is to render the style lively, 
earnest, amusing, colloquial, familiar, affectionate, etc. 
Some of the many expressions for this purpose are the fol- 
lowing: no^L', you see, well, indeed, truly, so, there, you know, 
so then, why. Nearly all of these elements are parenthetical; 
and being, therefore, more or less independent, generally 
require to be separated by punctuation from the rest c^ the 
sentence. That a sentence is a question, an exclamation, 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 3 

a quotation, or a mere parenthesis, is also a rhetorical fact, 
and the punctuation necessary is for that reason rhetorical. 

5. Grammatical Punctuation. — The flow of thought 
in language is not uniform and unbroken ; if it were so, 
punctuation within the body of a sentence would be unneces- 
sary. As explained above, logical and rhetorical elements 
are constantly introduced into sentences in such manner as 
to break their continuity, and these stand related to other 
elements in different degrees of remoteness. Among gram- 
matical elements also, there are interruptions of continuity. 
Words, phrases, and clauses do not unite their meanings in 
regular, uniform sequence; but breaks of unequal lengths 
occur after long and short intervals. Now, the only method 
of indicating such breaks is to punctuate ; and, on account of 
the great variety of these interruptions, punctuation is a 
matter requiring the nicest judgment. 

6. Etymological Punctuation. — Besides the punctua- 
tion of sentences for logical, rhetorical, and grammatical rea- 
sons, words and letters, considered as such, often require to be 
marked or punctuated. Thus, the fact that a word is com- 
potmd, abbreviated, or contracted; that it is grammatically 
inflected, is composed of separate syllables, or that certain 
vowels do not form diphthongs; that certain syllables have a 
particular pronunciation, accent, or quantity, or a letter has 
some definite vocal value : these and other facts are shown 
by marks within or about separate words. Such punctuation 
is etymological^ since it aids in fixing more exactly the true or 
root meaning of words {erviioXoyla, etymologia^ "the true 
sense of a word as determined by its origin"). The diacritical 
marks of the dictionaries are almost all used for etymological 
punctuation; and, since scientific tmiformity and exactness 
have been nearly or quite attained in the use of these marks, 
the subject requires very little attention in a work on general 
punctuation. 

7. Punctuation for Emphasis and Reference. — A 

great variety of marks are used for miscellaneous purposes. 
These purposes are so numerous and varied as not to 



4 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20 

admit of accurate classification; but nearly all of them 
serve for emphasis, or to refer the reader to something else 
in the composition. A few of them might be included 
under logical punctuation; as, the paragrapJi (^) and the 
section (§), when used to mark divisions. Others again are 
rhetorical ; as, the question mark when placed in marks of 
parenthesis to express doubt or incredulity, and the exclania- 
iion mark when employed to denote that something is sur- 
prising or absurd. The rules and methods that regulate the 
use of these marks are so definite and well known that, like 
those relating to etymological punctuation, they may be 
omitted from this treatise. 



CLASSTFICATIOX OF THE POIXTS. 

8, Grammatical punctuation employs the following 
marks: 

1. Comma (,) 3. Colon (:) 

2. Semicolon {;) 4. Period [.) 

5. Dash ( — ) 

9. Ijogical and rlietorical punctuation require the 
five marks given above, besides the following: 

1. Interrogation (?) 3. Marks of Quotation 

("")orC') 

2. Exclamation {\) 4. Marks of Paroithesis {) 

5. Brackets [ ] 

10, T]t:v-mological punctuation is indicated in general 
by the following marks : 

1. Caret (a) 3. Apostrophe (') 

2. Hyphen (-) or ( = ) 4. Accents 0, ('), and (^) 
5. Quantity Marks: \a) Macron (~) ; {b) Breve i^) 

6. Di ere sis ('") 

11. Punctuation for reference employs many marks 
besides letters and figures. The principal characters that 
have names are the following : 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 5 

1. Asterisk (*) 5. Parallel (||) 

2. Asterisni (/^) or (V) ^- I^^-dex or ''Fist'' (fi^^) 

3. Paragraph (t) 7. Dagger (f) 

4. Section (§) 8. Double Dagger (J) 

12. Technical Marks. — The marks mentioned above 
are of general use — they may be employed in written or 
printed matter relating to any subject whatever. But 
besides these, each art and science has its system of special 
marks, generally for the purpose of abbreviation. Thus, 
astronomy employs a large number; mathematics, chemistry, 
botany, music, and many other subjects would be almost 
impossible of satisfactory exposition without the help of 
arbitrary symbols. These symbols must perhaps be regarded 
as belonging to the general subject of punctuation, but 
such as pertain to special arts and sciences should be studied 
in connection with those subjects. It is only punctuation of 
general application and utility that will be considered in 
this treatise. 

13. Taste and Judgment in Punctuation. — It must 
not be assumed that punctuation has been reduced to an 
exact science. No two writers or printers could be found 
that would punctuate a long paragraph, much less a maga- 
zine article or a book, in exactly the same way. 

The varieties possible in sentence structure and in style are 
practically endless, and each person will interpret expressed 
thought a little differently from every other person. What 
to one person seems important or emphatic, will usually 
strike another person differently. These differences in 
interpretation inevitably lead to differences in what is con- 
ceived to be the appropriate or necessary punctuation. 
Hence, taste and judgment will determine in large measure 
the excellence and consistency of each person's practice of 
this art. It is clear therefore that no system of rules alone, 
however elaborate and precise, can be applied with uniform- 
ity or produce equally good results. Even a taste that has 
been informed by wide reading, close observation, and much 
reflection, must be aided by exact grammatical kno\vledo-c 



() PrXCTUATlOX AND CAPITALIZATION. § t>U 

and by a quick and accurate sense of loi^ical relation and 
arrangement. So important in this art are grammatical 
terms and principles, that a few of them will now be briefly 
explained and illustrated. 



GRAMMAR IX PUXCTUATIOX. 

14. Sentential Elements. — Sentences are primarily 
made up of single words. When, however, these separate 
elements are carefully considered with respect to the work 
they do, it is at once seen that they do not always enter the 
sentence as individual words each representing a separate 
idea; on the contrary, they often occur in groups of closely 
related words that must be taken together as signs of com- 
pound ideas. Each group has a function — does a work — 
exactly similar to that done by single words. These group 
elements are of two kinds; pJirascs and clauses. 

15. Phrases and Clauses. — x\ phrase is a group of 
words having a single function, but not expressing a com- 
plete thought. The following are some examples: 

In the spring, by the river, in fact, side by side, seeing the multi- 
tude, without hesitation, having been accused. 

The use of phrases in sentences is commonly either adjec- 
tival or adverbial. Their fimctions are to modify, narrow, 
restrict, the meaning of nouns and pronouns and other parts 
of speech. To show their functional tmity and to separate 
them from neighboring elements the meaning of which they 
might otherwise improperly modify, it is often necessary to 
set them off by punctuation. 

A clause is one of two or more sentential elements, each 
expressing not a mere conipound idea, but a complete thought ; 
it must therefore contain a finite verb, and when separated 
from the rest of the sentence in which it is used, it must say 
soiuething completely. A sentence may consist of several 
such clause elements united by connectives. 

The sun came out again luhen the rain ceased. 
Each man must expect to reap luhat he sows. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 7 

16. Three Important Principles. — Whether or not a 
word, a phrase, or a clause should be separated by punc- 
tuation from other elements, depends largely on three 
circumstances : 

1. Its LengtJi. — The longer a sentential element, the more 
likely is it to require separation by punctuation. 

2. Its Connection. — The need for punctuating an element 
increases with the. remoteness of its coitnection with other ele- 
ments. 

3. Its Position. — When a ivord or a longer expression is 
removed from the place in which the natural and orderly floiv 
of the thought requires it to be, it should usually be set off by 
some kind of punctuation. This transposition is usually for 
the purpose of emphasis, or it is the result of interruption 
or afterthought. 

Frequently, but 7iot always, are the wicked punished in this life. 

This sentence, regularly arranged, would require no 
punctuation. 

The wicked are frequently but not always punished in this life, 

1 'T . A General Ilule. — The modern tendency is towards 
the avoidance of unnecessary punctuation. Many persons 
get into the practice of putting in some kind of mark wher- 
ever it appears that a pause would be necessary in reading. 
This is all wrong. Such punctuation renders grammatical 
punctuation impossible. 

Others, again, always set off their Jww, ivhcn, and where 
clauses. This is very frequently unnecessary. Even those 
clauses that begin with such conjunctions as if unless, 
except, although, because, etc. should not be separated by 
punctuation unless for reasons that are very obvious. The 
inexperienced writer may safely observe the following: 

Punctuate too little rather than too much. When to 
punctuate does not render the meaning plainer or effect some 
definite advantage, do not punctuate. 

18, Origin of tlie Marks of I^nnetnation.— The names 
of most of the marks used for grammatical punctuation were 



8 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20 

borrowed from the names of the sentential elements set off 
by them. 

1. The period (nepiodog, pcriodos, "a way around") 
marked a complete circuit of w^ords — an entire sentence. 
The picture in the word is the circular track of a race course. 

2. The colon (atwAoi^, koloii^ "a limb," "half of a race 
course ") was one of two main divisions of a long compound 
sentence. From the part or division the name was trans- 
ferred to the mark used in indicating the divisions. 

3. Strictly, the seiiiieolon should be used in separating 
a sentence into four t J is; but, for obvious reasons, no such 
limitation is possible. It indicates a degree of separation 
next less than that made by the colon; but only in name, not 
in reality, is it a half-colon. 

4. The eoinina {KOfiiia, koimiia^ "a segment"; Koirreiv, 
koptcin, "to cut ") denotes the shortest separation in ideas or 
construction between written or printed sentential elements. 

5. The mark of interrogation is said to have been 
made from the initial and final letters of the Latin word 
Qucstio, the Q being written above the o\ thus, Q. 

G. The mark of exclamation is believed to have been 
formed from the letters of the Latin interjection io^ express- 
in^joy; thus, J. 



EILES rOB PUXCTLTATIOX. 

19. Insufficiency of Rules. — No code of rules for 
punctuation can be devised that will provide for every pos- 
sible sentence form, for the number of these is practically 
infinite, ^luch must be left to the judgment, taste, and 
intention of the writer. It may be taken as a general prin- 
ciple that the objects of punctuation are to aid in bring- 
ing out the exact meaning of the writer, and to prevent 
ambiguity. There should not be more punctuation than is 
required for the first, or less than will accomplish the second. 

The following rules will be found to cover all the cases 
that have been determ.ined by the general practice of th^ 
best authorities. . 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 9 

THE COMMA. 

20. General Principles. — The comma is used more 
frequently than any other mark of punctuation; but, almost 
without exception, these various uses may be included under 
one of the three following heads : 

1. The Interpolation of Elements. — The flow of thought 
in language is not uniform and unbroken like the current of 
a deep river; it is more like that of a stream filled with 
obstructions. These obstructions to the fl.ow of the sentence 
are indicated by punctuation. When an element not really 
necessary to the thought is introduced in such way as to 
break the continuity, it is commonly set off by commas. 

2. The Ellipsis of Elements. — In the expression of thought, 
elements are often so clearly implied that they need not be 
repeated. This is particularly the case with the verb^ 
though the ellipsis of other parts of speech, as for example 
the conjunction^ is very common. These ellipses are usually 
marked by commas. 

3. The Transposition of Elements. — Usage has established 
certain positions for the various sentential elements, which 
are often put in other places, generally for emphasis or 
euphony; and since in their unusual positions they obstruct 
in some measure the flow of thought, the fact must often be 
marked by punctuation. 



RULE I. 

21. Logical Elements. — Logical connective and transi- 
tional elements^ if the interruption from their use is very 
marked^ should be set off by commas. 

Besides, he is our father; therefore, we should show him respect. 
Moreover, the white man was the aggressor. 

22. Although these elements, being in the nature of 
modal adverbs (adverbs that modify entire vScntcnces), may 
be placed almost anywhere in a sentence or a clause, tlioir 
usual place when truly parenthetical is at the beginning. If 



10 PUN'CTUATIOX AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20 

they occur near an element the meaning of which they may 
be conceived as modifying, they lose their logical value, take 
on mere grammatical function, and require no punctuation. 

Bt'siih's, he is our father ; we should therefore show him respect. 
Finally, he was successful. He \\3.s Jifially successful. 
HcKi'ever, we are extremely sorry. However sorry we may be, is 
of no avail now. 

*<J3. The following are in common use as logical paren- 
thetical elements: 



then 


besides 


secondly 


in fact 


too 


again 


wherefore 


in fine 


also 


therefore 


consequently 


in conclusion 


now 


moreover 


further 


after all 


hence 


finally 


accordingly 


as stated 


whence 


first 


however 


continuing 



lu i.E ir. 
*-i4. lllietorical Kleineiits. — RJictorical chvioits that 
arcparoitJictical sJiould geutrally be set off by commas. 

Assuredly, Bums was a poet of real genius. 

Well, honor is the subject of my story. 

Xay, now, you do not realh* believe such non.sense. 

These words, assuredly, icell, nay^ and 7i07u, are modal 
adverbs. Each modifies the meaning of the entire sentence in 
which it is used, and their functions are distinctly rhetorical. 

25. When rhetorical elements stand at the beginning of 
a sentence or a clause, the rule requiring them to be punc- 
tuated must generally be obsen'ed ; in other positions, 
however, they usually lose in some measure their rhetorical 
value and become ordinal*}' modifiers requiring no punctu- 
ation. This is especially the case when they stand near a 
verb or other element the meaning of which they are capa- 
ble of modifying. 

Surely, a day of retribution will come. A day of retribution will 
surely come. 

/// reality, no such creature as a dragon ever existed. Xo such 
creature as a dragon ever existed in reality. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. H 



26. 


The 


following are examples of 


elements that are 


ually 


set off by commas 


when used with rh( 


storical value : 


ay 




really 


verily 




in a manner 


yes 




clearly 


truly 




as it were 


no 




briefly 


forsooth 




so to speak 


may 




surely 


honestly 




so to say 


now 




indeed 


to be sure 




no doubt 


well 




certainly 


you see 




to be candid 


then 




assuredly 


in a word 




in passing 


so 




obviously 


in reply 




to resume 


pray 




manifestly 


you know 




to be frank 



27. When two or more rhetorical elements are used 
together in close connection they are usually not separated 
from one another by punctuation. 

Really then, I am much disappointed. 

When therefore a new edition of my " Lectures " became necessary 
once more, I insisted on the destruction of the old plates. 

The same is true of expressions composed of logical, 
rhetorical, and grammatical connectives. But when one of 
the elements is ay, yea, yes, no, or nay, it is set off by a 
comma. It should be added, however, that there is no 
uniformity among our best writers in punctuating stich 
expressions. It is closeness of connection that must deter- 
mine the punctuation suitable in each case; provided always 
that the comma should be omitted ivJien it does not clearly aid 
in expressing the thought or in preventing ambiguity. 

The following are examples of such combinations: 



and then 


yes, indeed 


surely now 


by all means, then 


nay, now 


but surely 


truly then 


well, at any rate 


well then 


briefly then 


frankly, indeed 


obviously, therefore 


why then 


now truly 


so that now 


though certainly 


and again 


so indeed 


to resume, then 


but doubtless 


but now 


then again 


surely, however 


well truly, then 



Almost any of these combinations may sometimes require 
an intervening comma and sometimes not. They are how- 
ever most frequently punctuated as indicated above. (H' 
course a comma is almost always placed after the last word 
of such a grotip. 



U PUN'CTUATIOX AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20 

*^8. Parenthetical elements when differently used gener- 
ally require to be differently punctuated. The following 
examples will illustrate this principle: 

/( V// ///<•«, 111 go. Wtr//, then he surrendered. Well, then, no more 
need be said. 

Xay, nozi', don't be cruel. Xay, now he sees your meaning. 

Though certainly honest, he was unfortunate. Though, certainly 
we must all die. Though, certainly, if need should be, he would come. 



RULE III. 

29. Parentlietieal Gi-amuiatical Elements. — Gram- 
matical elements loosely connected are usually set off by 
commas, especially if they are long modifying phrases or 
clauses not directly joined to the expression they modify. 

The ancients accounted a man wise, if he was not too wise. 
This fact, though embarrassing, is unavoidable. 
Suppose, for e.xatnple, that the earth were flat. 

30. Strictly speaking, every term or expression foimd 
between the extreme words of a sentence is parenthetical 
(••placed within" or ''between"). But, as here used, the 
term is intended to include only such elements as the 
following : 

1. Modifying elements, although indispensable to the 
expression of nice distinctions and shades of thought, are 
not necessary to the sentential structure, and they often 
break in a marked degree the uniform flow of the thought 

The boy. when school time came, was frequently taken suddenly ilL 
It is said that, on a borrowed horse, a beggar always rides ver>- fast. 

If such expressions are placed so as not to interrupt, punc- 
tuation is not required. 

Jf'hen school time came the boy was frequently taken suddenly ilL 
The boy was frequently taken suddenly ill when school time came. 
It is said that a beggar on a borrowed horse always rides very fast- 

2. Elements introduced in the way of explanation or after- 
thought. 

The sweet violet, hardy here but tender northward, is a native of 
Europe. 

The moon seems, to me at least, more beautiful than the sun. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 13 

RULE IV. 

31. Transposed Expressions. — Elements that for em- 
phasis or any other reason are placed out of their natural or 
usual order are usually set off by commas. 

Respectfully, we insisted upon our rights. 

To the man thoroughly honest, stringent conditions are easy. 

33. Transposed elements should always be set off by 
commas under the following circumstances : 

1. When the transposition brings together the same parts 
of speech. 

In dealing with the foolish, wise men rarely act with wisdom. 
Towards wo?nen, men are generally considerate. 
What we did not have, gave us more trouble than what we had. 
When one deals with you, you are not always just. 

2. When the transposition brings together a nouji and an 
adjective^ or an adverb and a verb or participle^ or any ele- 
ment and a modifier suited to it, but really relating to some 
other element. 

Where the current was szuift, boats were towed by horses. 

On stormy days, cheerful books entertained us. 

When the snow disappeared, soon came the birds again. 

While he slept, there came an enemy. 

They rubbed their stomachs, with howls of agony = With howls of 
agony they rubbed their stomachs. 

We saw some boys, wandering along the street = We, wandering 
along the street, saw some boys. 

In cases like the last two the meaning is better expressed 
by careful arrangement than by punctuation. 

3. When the transposed element is long, or when it con- 
tains a restrictive clause element. 

That Bacon and not Shakespeare wrote that wonderful tragedy, ho 
firmly believed. 

By forgetting injuries that may be inflicted upon us by the malice 
of others, we declare our own nobility of character. 

33. The comma should be omitted in the following 
cases; 

1. When the main part of the sentence begins with a verb, 



J4 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. §20 

or when it contains a verb the object of which is in the trans- 
posed part. 

On the shore of the loud-sounding sea stood the home of the old 
fisherman. 

Many of the plays that Shakespeare wrote we read during the idle 
days of vacation. 

2. When the transposed portion begins with a preposition 
dependent on some word in the other part. 

In the poetry of Homer he felt no itiierest. 

Of the money received for our labor we had no difficulty in dispo- 
sing. 

3. When the transposed portion begins with it is or with 
only. 

It is generally when success is merited that it is achieved. 
Only when the birds return from the South is it certain that spring 
has begun. 

4. When no ambiguity would follow the omission of the 
comma. 

In the following sentences the comma must be inserted 
to express the meaning intended : 

In everything, honorable men consider honor. 

By all these, different creeds were held. 

Every moment, neglected opportunities were recalled. 



RULE V. 

34. Dependent Clauses. — Dependent clauses., unless 
the connection is close, should be set off by commas. 

Although the planet Venus closely resembles the earth, it may be 
without inhabitants. 

If you would succeed in the thing that you undertake, you must give 
it close attention. 

Until the preliminaries have all been settled by the interested parties, 
nothing can be done. 

35. Dependent clauses are, as a rule, punctuated only 
when they are transposed. The examples just given illus- 
trate this. 

Nothing can be done until the preliminaries have all been settled by 
the interested parties. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 15 

36. Clauses denoting time, place^ or vianner, unless trans- 
posed and long, or very loosely connected, need not be set 
off by commas. Such clauses begin with wJien, where, hozu, 
until, before, after, etc. 

37. Clauses introduced by than, as, and so that are not 
punctuated unless they are out of their natural and usual 
place. 

You should always do as you are told = As you are told, you should 
always do. 

He is in reality no wiser or better than he should be = No wiser or 
better than he should be, is he in reality. 



RULE VI. 

38. Relative Clauses. — When not restrictive, relative 
clauses should be set off by commas. 

This state, which was named after Queen Elizabeth, was settled in 
1607. 

The members, who were much dissatisfied, left the church. 
Homer, who is said to have composed the Iliad, was blind. 

The function of a restrictive clause is merely to modify; 
that of a relative clause is to explain or to add some circum- 
stance or afterthought. 

39. Restrictive relative clauses are preferably intro- 
duced by that. When wJio and which are used for this 
purpose, ambiguity is likely to result. 

The train that leaves in the morning is very fast = The outgoing 
mortiing train is very fast (restrictive clause, complex sentence). 

The train, which leaves in the morning, is an express = The train 
is an express and it leaves in the morning (coordinate clause, com- 
pound sentence). 

The soldier that disobeyed orders was arrested = The disobedient 
soldier was arrested (clause an adjective in function, sentence complex). 

The soldier, who disobeyed orders, was arrested = The soldier was 
arrested, /^r he disobeyed orders (the soldier- = some partien tar soldier 
before referred to). 

40. A restrictive relative clause that modifies each item 
in a series should be set off by commas. 



16 PUNCTUATIOX AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20 

Books, papers, and magazines, that had not been read, littered the 
floor = i 'nread books, papers, and magazines littered the floor. 

In the first form of the sentence the comma would often 
be omitted after magazines, but the result is always ambi- 
guity. The meaning then is that only the magazines had 

not been read 

41. When relative clauses, whether restrictive or coordi- 
nate, are broken by parenthetical elements, they are punctu- 
ated as follows: 

Restrictive. — He is the best man thai, under the circumstances, 
could be found. 

Coordinate. — A caller, icho, I think, is an old friend of yours, is in 
the parlor. 

The same distinction should be observed in punctuating 
clauses introduced by ichose, by zi'hom or zc/tie/i, and by 
zi'hose following a preposition. 

The President, to whom I am much indebted, passed a moment ago. 
A man by w/iose experience we might profit cannot be found. 

The first clause is coordinate, the second is restrictive. 



RULE VII. 

42. Apposition. — Elements in apposition, unless short 
and closely connected, are set off by commas. 

Milton, the Homer of England, was blind. 
John the evangelist was the beloved disciple. 
John, the beloved disciple, wrote the Revelation. 

43. When the less specific appositive precedes and is 
used like an attributive adjective, punctuation is omitted. 

The great orator Cicero was slain at the instance of Caesar'sfriend 
Antony. 

If. however, the appositives are separated by intervening 
elements, punctuation is required. 

The great orator of Rome, Cicero, was less eloquent than A? of 
Athens. Demosthenes. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. IT 

44. When the more general element of compound names 
precedes, punctuation is required, except in the case of 
scientific names. 

Smith, Geo. W. ■ Liliuin auratum. Ca7iis familiaris. 

45. A pronoun used in the manner of an adjective before 
a noun is not separated from it by punctuation ; but, when 
used like a noun in apposition, punctuation is required. The 
former use is called adjunctive or attTibiitive^ and the latter 
appositive. 

You me7i are more vain than ive women. Ye ine7i of Athens. 
We old soldiers are now of but little use to the country. They showed 
him, a senator, the door. 

You, boys; I mean you. And thus to ;;«<?, an old Castiliait, he spoke. 

46. The adjunctive use of a noun is distinguished from 
its appositive use by punctuation. 

One son, John, went to the Klondike ; another son, Williain, was 
killed in Cuba (appositive). 

My son John is dead, and my daughter Mary is married (adjunctive). 

4*7. Adjectives are distinguished as adjunctive or apposi- 
tive by means of punctuation. 

It was a horrible night, stormy, tempestuous, when we set out for 
home (appositive). 

One dark, stormy, and tempestuous night we set out for home 
(adjunctive). 

If an adjective used appositively is unemphatic, the punc- 
tuation is omitted. 

A form more Jair and a face more sweet, 

A sound sweet and low reached our ears from within, 

48. Terms of equal generic value, made appositive for 
the sake of explanation or emphasis, should be set off by 
commas. 

It is certain that all energy, power, force, originates in the sun. 
Sendy(9(?^, money, clothes, — anything. 

In each of these sentences the itahcized words are different 
names for the same thing or intended for the same use — 
they have equal class^ or generic^ value. 



IS PUXCTUATIOX AND CAPITALIZATION. §20 

HI LK ^ III. 

49. Conti*ast. — Contrasted clone fits are set off by 

eoifinias. 

Gold, not si77'er, is what they sought. 

Not merely in prosperity, but /;/ adversity also, was he your friend. 



RULE IX. 

50. Omitted Connectives. — Similar elements not con- 
neeted by eonjunctions are separated from one another by 
commas. 

Come, tell me what you wish. 

Lend, lend your wings. 

Softly, sweetly she erooned, she sang to her darling. 

Genius is hvX patient, persistent, indefatigable industry. 

51. "When the items of an emphatic series are similarly 
related to an element that precedes or follows, this element 
should usually be separated from the series by a comma. 

All that was lored, all that was hated, all that was feared by man, 
he tossed about. 

If he could only see, understand, experience, what I suffer, he would 
behave differently. 

To blunder stupidly, grossly, rashly, is inexcusable. 

To offer no opposition to the orders of his official superiors ; to formu- 
late against them neither argument nor objection, even in the secrecy 
of his own mind; to know, in fine, nothing but blind unreasoning 
obedience, seem the ehief glory and exeellenee of a soldier. 

In the last sentence the items of the series are separated 
by semicolons, yet the common italicized part is preceded by 
a comma, as in the other sentences. 

52. When the last two elements of a series have a con- 
nective between them, a comma is required before the con- 
nective ; but when connectives occur between ever}^ two 
elements, commas should not be used. 

Oranges, lemons, limes, and grapefruit belong to the same family 
Day nor night nor sunshine nor storm affected him. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 19 

53. Compound series consisting; of groups of similar 
items require a comma between each two groups. 

They had picture books about simitars and slippers and turbans, 
and dwarfs and giants and genii and fairies, and bluebeards and 
beanstalks and riches and caverns and Valentines and Orsons, — and all 
new and all true. 



RULE X. 

54. Disjunctive Connection. — When two elements are 
united by conjunctions that are strongly adversative or dis- 
junctive^ they should usually be separated by commas. 

Work rapidly, but let your work be thorough. 
His offense was very serious, still he was forgiven. 
The case was critical, yet we were not without hope. 
Shall we come today, or can you wait a day or two? 

55. Conjunctions with a strongly marked disjunctive 
value are the following: or, nor^ yet, still, but, best, albeit, 
though, although, unless, however, whereas, provided, never- 
theless, notwithstanding. 

56. The connection between two elements increases in 
remoteness as they take on adjuncts. It follows, therefore, 
that a comma may be required for this reason even when the 
connective is not disjunctive. 

A tall handsome boy with black eyes and wavy hair, and a very 
beautiful girl, met us at the gate. 

57. Two elements that are disjunctive from the fact 
that they are equivalent or alternative names, are usually 
set off by commas. When the conjunction is omitted, such 
elements are said to be /;/ apposition. 

A large opening, or inlet, led to the ample bay within. 
Meter, or jneasure, is the number of poetical feet that a verse con- 
tains. 



RUT^E XI. 

58. Independent Clauses. — Independent clauses should 
be separated by a comma if the conjunction between them 



'^0 PU^'CTL^\TK)X AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20 

Diiglit be understood as connect iu^:;^ not tJie clauses^ but words 
or phrases. 

Life is very short, but delightful and precious are the sunny days of 
youth. 

Be careful to speak always with moderation, and in honesty deal 
thou with all men. 



RULE XII. 

59. Address. — Aji clement independent by address is 
set off by com mas. 

I rise, Mr. President, to a point of order. 

Time, you t/iiej, who love to get sweets into your list, put that in. 

Come, Antojiy, and young Ociavius, come. 

60. A pronoun in the second person used like an attribu- 
tive adjective or before a relative or an indefinite pronoun, 
is not set off by commas. 

Thoti moon that roll'st above. 

You blocks, yoti stones, you worse than senseless things, 

O thou whose love can ne'er forget its offspring, man. 



RULE XIII. 

61. Absolute Constriietions. — An element used abso- 
lutely or independently should commonly be set off by commas. 
There are several varieties of this construction i 

L TJie Participial. — In this the characteristic word is a 

participle. 

Honor beiJtg tost, everything is lost. 

Such, speaking frankly, is my honest opinion. 

2. The Infinitive. 

To be sure, we might have done worse. 

Now, to ?nake a lo?tg story short, this is what we will do. 

3. The Imperative. 

I say, believe me or not, that the story is false. 

We shall go, be sure of that, at the earliest opportunity. 

4. The Adjectival. 

Good at heart himself, he thought men better than they are. 
His one daughter, beautiful as ever, was still at home. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 21 

5. The Pleonastic. — This construction commonly consists 
in the mere ineiitioii of something concernhig which a gram- 
matically complete sentence follows. The pleonastic con- 
struction is one that is overfilled. 

Day, it brings him no delight ; flight, he has no rest or peace at 
night. 

RULE XIV. 

62, Informal Introduction. — A siiort quotation or 
similar element informally introduced should generally be set 
off by commas. 

Plato's definition, " Man is a biped without feathers," was ridiculed 
by Diogenes. 

The oracle answered, "No man is sure of happiness before he is 
dead." 

Tennyson's saying, "Death is the end of life," is an unpleasant 
reminder. 

63. When the element introduced is one word or the 
introduction is very close, the commas should be omitted if 
no ambiguity results. 

The Greek name Agamemjioii means great memory. 

Horace's " While we live let tis live " has led to much dissipation. 



RULE XV. 

64. Ellix>sis of tlie Verb. — In continued sentences where 
a common verb is expressed in only one of the clauses and 
understood in the others., the omitted verb is usually indicated 
by a comma. 

Homer was the greater genius; Virgil, the better artist. 
Semiramis built Babylon; Dido, Carthage; and Romulus, Rome. 



RUT.i: xvr. 
65. Bates. — Dates and other expressio?is consisting of a 
scries of related groups require connnas between their compo- 
nent groups. 

Washington was born on Friday, Fel^ruary 22, 17;)2, in Wostmoro- 
land Co. , Va. 



•.';.' I'l XCTUATION AXI) CA I'l TALIZATK )X. < -.^O 

Sec (rrccii's "History of tlic lCnt;iisli People," vol. i, book lii, 
ciuip. ii, pp. 42;3-42."). 

Killed in an aceident at rJ:j!) Fifth ave. . Xew York, Tuesday. June 7, 

60. Commas should not be placed between B. C. A. D.., 
A. U. C, etc., and the number denoting- a year. 

Caesar invaded Britain, B. C. 55 (or, in the year 55 B. C. ). 
Done at Washington, D. C, July 10, A. D. 1899. 

Arabic numbers^ except where used to denote dates or 
street or page numbers, are separated by commas into 
periods of three figures each, beginning at the right. In the 
case of mixed decimals the place of beginning is the decimal 
point. 
10,129,475.68; $36,902.7325+; $1,049.6851; £12,985. 



THE SEMICOLOX. 



RX'LE XVII. 

6T. Added Clauses. — JVhcji a clause complete in itself 
is foUoiK.'ed by one expressing a j'cason or consequence^ an 
explanation or inference^ the clauses should usually be sepa- 
rated by a semicolon. 

We might have guessed our immortaUty; for Nature, giving 
instincts, never fails to give the ends to which they point. 

The fear of heresy did what the sense of oppression could not do ; it 
changed men into devoted partisans and obstinate rebels. 

68. Even when the connective is omitted, the semicolon 
is used unless the clauses are very long and their connection 
not close. In this latter case a colon may be required, or 
the sentence may be broken into two sentences. 

The wisest are liable to error; even Jupiter sometimes nods. 
History cannot be perfectly true; it may tell the truth, but not the 
whole truth. 

69. When there is doubt as to the degree of separation, 
preference should be given to a point denoting less separa- 
tion of parts. When it is not clear which is better, a comma 
or a semicolon, use a comma. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 23 

]ll[I.l] XVlll. 

70. Subdivided Clauses. — United clauses that contain 
elements set off by coimnas sJioiild generally be separated by 
semicolons. 

Arrogance is generally, though not always, born of wealth and the 
consciousness of power ; but true humility, of real wisdom and genius. 



RULE XIX. 

7 1 . Coordinate Clauses. — United clauses of equal rank, 
slightly connected and without intervening connectives, should 
be separated by semicolons. 

Stones grow; vegetables grow and live; animals grow, live, and 
feel. 

If the clauses are short, unbroken, and closely connected, 
they should be separated by commas. 

Everything grows old, everything passes away, everything disap- 
pears. 

KULE XX. 

72. Dependent Particulars. — When each of a series 
of expressions is dependent on the same elements, they should 
generally be separated by semicolons. 

Macaulay says of Herodotus that he has written an incomparable 
book; that he has written something better perhaps than the best 
histor}^; that he has not, however, written a good history; that he is, 
from the first to the last chapter, an inventor. 

If we think of glory in the field; of wisdom in the cabinet; of the 
purest patriotism ; of the highest integrity, public and private ; of 
morals without a stain — the august figure of Washington presents 
itself as the personification of all these ideas. 



RULE XXI. 

73. Appositive Particulars. — A general term should 
be separated by a semicolon from the particulars under it 
when they are very short; and the particulars thonsclvcs 
should be separated from one another by commas 



x>4 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. ^ ^i> 

In solid geometry arc considered, among other tilings, four of the 
most interesting of solids; the prism, the cylinder, the cone, and the 
sphere. 

74. If the appositive items are formally introduced, or 
if they themselves are long or broken by punctuation, they 
should be preceded by a colon and separated from one 
another by semicolons. 

Grammar consists of the following parts : first, orthography; second, 
etymology; third, sytita.x ; and fourth, prosody^ 



KULE XXII. 

75. lutroductory Expressions. — A semicolon should 
coDivionly precede as, viz., namely, to wit, i. e. , that is, e. g. , 
and like expressions^ luhen nsed to introduce an example or a 
list of particulars. 

A pleonastic construction is one that contains words grammatically 
superfluous ; as. The skies they were ashen and sober. 

Shakespeare has many instances of mixed metaphor; for example, 
" to take arms agai?ist a sea of troubles." 

There were five persons present ; namely, Lincoln, Stanton, Grant, 
Sherman, and Sheridan. 



RULE XXIII. 

7 6. Conipound Series. — TJie groups of a series should be 
separated from one another by semicolons if the items compo- 
sing some or all of the groups require commas betzueen than. 

Discriminate the following: refined, polished; urbane, civil, rustic, 
polite; contemptuous, contemptible. 

The English has many words derived from Oriental languages: 
Malay, gong, sago, rattan; Chinese, tea, junk ; Polynesian, tattoo, 



THE COEOX. 



RULE XXIV. 

77. Subdivided Membei-s. — Colons should separate 
members of a sentence if one or more of those members are 
themselves subdivided by semicolons. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 25 

As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did 
not see it moving ; and it appears that the grass has grown, though 
nobody ever saw it grow: so the advances we make in knowledge, as 
they consist of such minute steps, are perceivable only by the distance. 

78. If the elements separated by semicolons have no 
interposed commas, a semicolon should take the place of the 
colon and commas should be used instead of the semicolons. 

A sovereign almost invisible, a crowd of dignitaries minutely distin- 
guished by badges and titles, rhetoricians that said nothing but what 
had been said ten thousand times, schools in which nothing had been 
taught but what had been known for ages ; such was the machinery 
provided for the government and instruction of the most enlightened 
part of the human race. 

This sentence exemplifies the rule for appositive partic- 
ulars (see rule XXI). 



RULE XXV. 

79. Formal Quotations. — A direct quotation or any 
similar matter sJiould be preceded by a colon when formally 
introduced. 

Horace boasted of his poetical work in the following terms : " I have 
erected a monument more enduring than bronze." 

Do not forget this important fact : if 3'ou show the people with whom 
you have dealings that you do not trust them, they will soon recipro- 
cate your suspicious treatment. 

80. This rule applies to a series of particulars formally 
introduced. 

In the prisoner's possession were found the following articles: two 
watches, six silver spoons, a diamond ring, and two pairs of new kid 
gloves. 

81. When the matter following- the introduction consists 
of several sentences or begins a new paragraph, a dash \\\i\j 
follow the colon to indicate the broken connection. This 
punctuation is preferred by many after the salutation in a 
letter; others very properly omit the dash on the ground 
that there is no break in the sense or in the connection; 



20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20 

others again use a comma with or without a dash, but this 
usage is scarcely defensible. 

Mr. Wm. Kegan, 
Dear Sir: Dear Sir: — London, England. 

Your letter etc. Your letter etc. Dear Sir: Your letter etc. 

83, If the quotation is a mere short saying or is infonn- 
ally introduced, a comma alone is sufficient. 

Some one says, "The good die young" ; but, nevertheless, the good 
are not discriminated against by the insurance companies. 



RULE XXVI. 

83. '^Yes" and '':So.->'—JJ7ic/i t//c^ z.'or^/s "yes" (i;id 
"no," in aiisiucr to a question, arc fol/owcd by a cotitinnation 
of the anszver or by an explanation of it, a colon is required 
betivccn the answer and its continuation. 

May we trust to the intelligence and patriotism of the President ? 
Yes: that has been fully demonstrated. 

Do you live here, my boy ? Yes, sir: I was born here. 

A semicolon is often used in place of the colon in such 
cases as the foregoing. 



RULE XXVII. 

84. Title Pag-es. — If tJic main title of a book is followed 
by a second title in apposition, and no connective intervenes, 
the two should be separated by a colon. 

^Mnemonics: The Art and Science of Remembering. 

If or is used between the two titles, the connective should 
have a semicolon before it and a comma after it. 

Logic; or, The Laws of Reasoning, Including Fallacies. 

The colon is used on title pages, and in catalogues of 
books, between the name of the place of publication and the 
name of the publisher. 

Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass. : Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 



20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 27 
THE PERIOD. 



RULE XXVIII. 

S5, Complete Sentences. — A complete statement or 
command, unless very strongly excla^natory^ sJioiddbe folloived 
by a period. 

History is philosophy teaching by means of examples. 
Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. 
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. 

86. A sentence beginning- with and., or, for^ but, or a 
similar connective is in reality a part of the preceding sen- 
tence ; yet such sentences are often separated by periods from 
what precedes. In this way, long and complex constructions 
may be avoided, with a gain in force and in ease of compre- 
hension. 

The period is to be preferred to the exclamation point at 
the end of an exclamatory statement or command, unless 
the emotion to be expressed is exceptionally strong. 



RULE XXIX. 

87. Abbreviations. — A period sJiould be used after 
every abbreviated ivord, but not after contracted words 
ivJien the missing elements are replaced by a dash or an 
apostrophe. 

MSS.,p.,pp., Dr., Ph. D., LL. D., and Co. are abbreviations. 
Redd, can't,payt,f—7i S — th, and Revdixre contractions. 

88. Arabic figures when used to number paragraphs, 
examples, articles, etc., and letters of the alphabet wlien 
used for the same purpose, take a period after them. When, 
as part of a sentence structure, they become ordinal or arc 
enclosed in marks of parenthesis a period is not required; 
as, (1), {a), 1st, 2d, 4th. 

Roman numbers are by most authorities written with a 
period following; as, IV., XVIII. When used in paging. 



28 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20 

Roman and Arabic numbers do not have the period after 
them. There is good authority for omitting the period in 
all cases after Roman numerals. 

89. The symbols for chemical elements are written 
without periods; also, the letters used in geometry and other 
sciences to represent quantity of any kind, and certain other 
much used mathematical abbreviations. 

Water consists of two atoms of H combined with one atom of O. 
If A can do a piece of work in a days, etc. 

sec ci cos ci 

vers a = \ — cos a — ' , loj? .r, tan a + cot d = .x, etc. 

sec a 

Sizes of books are indicated without periods; as, Jfto, 
fvOj 12mo. These are hybrid contractions of quarto^ octavo^ 
/jiodecimo^ etc. 

KULE XXX. 

90. Side Heads. — After a title or a side head that forms 
part of a paragraph, a period, or a period followed by a dash, 
should be used. The dash alone is preferred by some 
authorities. 

Capital Letters. Capital letters are used etc. 

Capital Letters. — Capital letters are used etc. 

A^ote. The student will observe etc. yV. B. Remark. 

Note. — An apparent exception etc. N. B. — Remark, 



RULE XXXI. 

91. Tabular Matter. — /;/ tables and synopses, and in 
statistical or other matter in tabular form, the period should 
be used only after abbreviations, or ivhere it ivill prevent 
ambiguity. This rule applies also to other marks of ptmctu- 
ation. 

92. In late books printed by the most reputable pub- 
lishers, punctuation is almost entirely excluded from title 
pages. The same usage is well established with respect to 
the headings of chapters, running titles at the tops of pages, 
and in many similar cases. The theory is that punctuation 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 29 

should be used only when it accomplishes a useful purpose. 
The following reduced title page will illustrate : 

THE 

AMERICAN COMMONWEALTH 



BY 

JAMES BRYCE 

lUTHOK of "the holy ROMAN EMi'lKE 
M. P. FOR ABERDEEN 



IN TWO VOLUMES 

VOL. I 

The National Government— The State 
Governments 

THIRD EDITION 

COMPLETELY REVISED THROUGHOUT 
WITH ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS 



New York 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

London: Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 
1897 

All rights reserved 



THE INTERROGATION POINT 



RULE XXXII. 

93. Direct Questions. — Every dii'ect question should 
be followed by a mark of interrogation^ but not an indireet 
question. 

Direct : If a man die, shall he live again ? 

,. J Tell me whether, if a man die, he will live again. 

\ He inquired when I intended to go to New York. 

94. When several questions have a common dependence 
on a final element, only one mark of interrogation is recjuircd, 
and that should be placed at the end. 

Whither now are fled those dreams of greatness; tliosc l)usy, bus- 
tling days; those happy, festive nights; those veering thoughts, lost 
between good and ill, that charmed thy youth ? 



:}() PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § -^U 

When several questions have no common element, each 
question, even though grammatically incomplete, requires a 
separate mark. 

What is education ? Who are its apostles ? When did they live ? 
Where ? 

Shall a man succeed by theft ? by dishonesty ? by trickery ? by 
bribery ? 

95. Ouestions are often put in the declarative form. In 
such cases they are known to be questions only by their 
punctuation. 

You will come to-morrow ? I may depend on that ? 
Well, sir ? Sick ? Since when ? Yesterday ? 

Of late years there has come into pretty general use the 
practice of following the statements of a speaker with an 
interrogative yes. This is in very bad taste. 

speaker. — " We then went aboard the steamer, which immediately 
left the harbor." Listener. — "Yes?" Speaker. — " The voyage was 
at first very rough, and we were all seasick." Listener. — " Yes ?" 

This is a usage similar to the "Do tell I" of the New 
England States. 



Rl LE XXXIII. 

96. Doubt. — /// order to eienote doubt or i)icrediility or 
to suggest a correetiou, au interrogation mark ?uay be inserted 
icithin the body of a sentenee and enelosed by marks of 
parentJiesis. 

Thomas Parr was born in 1483 (?) and died in 1635. 
The augers {augurs ?) were all in the temple of Jupiter. 
Hypatia was murdered by the monks, instigated by Saint (?) Cyril 
of Alexandria. 

RULE xxxrs'. 

97. Quotations AVitliin Questions. — A quotation 
icit/iin a question must be punctuated so as to retain the 
individuality of each. 

Have you heard the head waiter say "dinner is served " ? 

Do you remember Tweed's " what are you going to do about it ?" 

Did not some one cry " murder! help!" ? 

Has the question, " whence came we ?" ever been answered ? 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 31 
THE EXCLAMATIO]Sr P0I:N^T. 



RULE XXXV. 

98. Exclamatory Sentences. — An, exclamation point 
should be placed at the end of a sentence expressing very 
strong emotion or implying loud outcry. 

What a burning shame! How dare you, sir! 

" Come back ! come back ! " he cried in grief. " Rouse, ye Romans! 
rouse, ye slaves! " 

Even when the feeHng is strong, it is better to avoid, when- 
ever possible, the use of the exclamation point. It is a mark 
found most frequently in weak writing. Mere tricks of 
punctuation cannot make up for lack of force ; a refined and 
well balanced intellect avoids the show of emotion. 

O, sir, forgive me. 

O, I am utterly disgusted with him. 



RULE XXXVI. 

99. Exclamatory Expressions. — Ari exclamation point 
should usually folloiv interjections and interjectional expres- 
sions. 

Alas ! alas ! what have I spoken ? Listen ' O listen ! 
Oh ! how it hurts ! O what a beauty ! 
Ha, ha, ha, ho, ho! Fie, fie, fie, good sir! 

When an interjection is repeated the ptmctuation should 
be as in the last example above. 

100. The interjections O and oh are generally discrim- 
inated thus: The former is used where the emotion colors an 
entire sentence ; the latter as a mere ejaculation expressing 
sudden, strong, and explosive emotion. When O is used, 
the exclamation point should be written, if at all, at the end 
of the emotive expression ; but oh should be directly followed 
by the point. 

101. The interjection O is sometimes used to express 
mere earnestness, and in such cases the exclamation point 
should be displaced by ordinary punctuation^ 



3-.> PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § -20 

What did you do then? O, I just walked away without replying. 
O, sir, may I not have the place ? 

Tennyson has the following : 

" O sir, oh prince, I have no country: none." 

102. The interjection cJi is usually followed by a ques- 
tion mark. 

You are going, eh? 

"When so used an interjection is really a inodal adverb^ 
because it modifies the meaning of the entire sentence. 



RULE xxx^ni. 

103. Gii\duated Emotion. — Euiotion is rcpresiutid as 
i)icrcasing or deer casing by using more or fencer exclamation 
points. 

Police! Help:: Murder::: Murder:::! 

Oh I Oh ! I Oh ! : ! Ah : ! Ah-h-h :— the tooth was out 



THE DASH. 



RULE XXXVIII. 

104. Changes in Sense or Construction. — A sudden 
change in sense or in grammatical construction, or an abrupt 
pause ^ is indicated by the dash. 

My uncle — he was my best friend — died a week ago. 
Honesty, they say. — here's your health, sir, — is the best policy. 
That old teacher of yours — by the way, what ever became of him? — 
was an odd character. 

RULE XXXIX. 

105. Rlietorieal Pause. — A dash is used to mark a 
rhetorical pause, or suspension of the voice for effect^ H'here 
there is no change in the grammatical constructio?i. 

He is shrewd, polished, unscrupulous, and — religious. 

My friend devotes much time to charity and general benevolence — 
when there's money in it. 

A — '* Thou art a villain." B — " Vou are — a senator." 

"You are ver>- kind; I can never repay — " she was unable to pro- 
ceed. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 33 

KUJ.K XI^. 

106. Rhetorical Repetition. — JVhcn the construction 
is broken and resumed for rhetorical effect, a dash should 
follow between the break and the part repeated. 

O those happy days of childhood 1— childhood, the beautiful !— child- 
hood, the innocent! — they are gone forever. 

To me— me, his benefactor— me, his lifelong friend— to me he has 
been false. 

Is there — is there balm in Gilead? — tell me, — tell me, I implore! 



RULE XLI. 

107. Generalization. — When a series of terms is repre- 
sented by a following generic expression, a dash should folloiv 
the series. 

Write a tale, a history, a poem, — anything,— only write. 
He was chubby and plump — a right jolly old elf. 

108. The generic term may precede the series. 

Those old Greek ;m;;z<?j-,— Demosthenes, Agamemnon, Epaminon- 
das,— they have a suggestion of immortality in their resonance. 



RULE XLII. 

109. Parenthetical Dash. — Parenthetical expressions 
that are too closely connected to be enclosed in marks of 
parenthesis may be placed betiveen dashes. 

In those beautiful far-off June days, — and no days can be more 
beautiful, — she and I gathered flowers in the Kentish meadows. 

What woman — was it your mother, 1 wonder ?— taught you to rever- 
ence woman? 

I live by myself, and all the bread and cheese I get, — which is not 
much, — I put upon a shelf. 

110. Various degrees of connection of parenthetical ele- 
ments are indicated by the manner of their punctuation. The 
following forms show how such matter is punctuated when 
introduced within the body of a sentence. The first indicates 
the least degree of remoteness, and the last, the greatest. 

;-:;;;;:;:;;;- (.;;;:;;;;;;;;.) [..:;:::::::::;'.] 



M PrNXTUATIOX AXD CAPTTAT JZATTOX. < -20 

txa:Tij)ics illusiniiin^ iJ!c>c r«»ni!> --r i\:rL':::ic::ca: ele- 
ments may be found in many places in this work. (See 
Arts. 104 to lOO, inclusive, and elsewhere.) 

Of course, a dash should not displace a period, a question 
mark, or a mark of exclamation at the end of a sentence. 

111. Questions and exclamations, being in their nature 
rhetorical or logical, have no determinate degrees of cloee- 
ness in connection. When introduced in intermediate posi- 
tions in sentences^ they are punctuated in the following, 
among other way- : 



?) [• 



RULE XLITT. 

112. Omisaons. — T/w omission of letters or figures that 
art plainly implitd niay be marked bj the dash (the em and 
the en dash respectively). 

D — ^n and P — s were noted for their great friendship. 
The winter of 1837-38 was a very severe one. 

Matt. 7:9-14. This means Matthew, 7th chapter, verses 9 to 14^ 
inclusive. 

In referring to pages no omissions o£ ngures are allowable. 
See letter A" in " Standard Dictionary," pp. 2085-2OS7, indnsiTe. 



RILi: XLIA'. 

113. Titles Run In. — When a title begins the first line 
of a paragraph, a dash folhrzcing a period should separate it 
from the text of the paragraph (see rule XXX). 



RtTJE XLV. 

114. For Introductory TTords. — The dash may be 
used as a substitute for certain icords of for^unlinfr durfion 
sueh as viz., namely, e. g., ie., that is, et: 

In his library were editions beaatifollj bonnd of ali the great poets 
—Homer. Virgil. Dante, Milton. Shake^>eare, etc 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 35 

JWJuE XJ.VI. 

115. Autlioi'ities. — W/iai an mitliofs name imme- 
diately follows a citation it should be separated from the 
quoted passage by a dash. 

•'Beware when the great God lets loose a thinker on this planet. 
Then all things are at risk." — Emerson. 

116. If the author's name is placed on aline by itself 
no dash is required. 

•'Nothing is so dangerous as an ignorant friend ; a wise enemy is 
more helpful." 

Voltaire. 

117. If both the writer's name and the writing in which 
the quotation is found are given, they should be separated 
by a dash and be printed in different type. 

" Language is only the instrument of science, and words are but the 
signs of ideas." 

Johnson — Preface to "■English Dictionary."' 



THE MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. 



RULE XLVII. 

118. Words inserted in the body of a sentence or para- 
graph^ and nearly or quite independent., so that they may be 
omitted without changing the sense or construction., should be 
enclosed in marks of parentJiesis. 

Great rifts or spots sometimes appear on the surface of the sun (a 
picture of solar spots is thrown upon the screen), which are never seen at 
the poles, but always in a narrow belt along the sun's equator. 

Another theory (that of Weissman) is that acquired aptitudes cannot 
be transmitted from parent to offspring. 

This subject will be found more fully treated in another place (sec 
pp. 125-187) and admirably illustrated. 

119. A distinction should be observed between paren- 
thesis cxnd marks of parenthesis. The former should moan 
the enclosed matter ; the latter, the enclosing marks. The 



oh PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. ^ ... 

plural, parent hi st's^ should be used to deiu»te the matter 
enclosed within several pairs of marks of parenthesis. 

Too many parentheses great!)- weaken the force of every form of 
composition. 

Enclose all the adjectives in marks of parenthesis. 

A parenthesis should, in general, not begin with a capital, 
unless the first word is a proper name, but should be 
treated as a mere inferior part of the sentence within which 
it occurs, even though it is itself a complete sentence. 

1*^0. Such punctuation as a parenthesis requires should 
be wholly within the enclosing marks. If the parenthesis is 
a declarative sentence, it usually takes no period at the end ; 
but if it is a question or an exclamator}' sentence, the punc- 
tuation should denote this fact. 

Kit's mother, poor woman, is waiting at the gate below, accom- 
panied by Barbara's mother (she, honest soul! never does an)"thing but 
crv- and hold the baby), and a sad interview ensues. 



BRACKETS. 



RrxE xLvm. 

121e Brackets should be used to enclose (a) suggested 
corrections in grammar and spelling ; {b) stage directions in 
plays; (r) derivation of words^ plurals^ principal parts, etc., 
in dictionaries. 

He was the subtilest [subtlest (?)] reasoner whom [that] the age pro- 
duced. 

Macbeth. \^Aside.^ Two truths are told. 

As happy prologues to the swelling act 
Of the imj>erial theme. [Exeunt. J 

Speed, spid, v. [sped or speed'ed; speed'ing.] [a. s. spedan, <sped; 
see speed, //.] 

The principle governing the use of the brackets is that the 
matter enclosed by them shall have no grammatical connec- 
tion with other words. Their purpose is simply explanatory 
or to supply an omission. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 3? 
QUOTATIOJN^ MA1IK8. 



IIULE XLIX. 

123. Direct Quotations. — Expressions that are cited 
or borrozved sJiould^ ivJien written or printed^ be enclosed 
betiueen marks of quotation. 

Seneca makes this remark : "If you wish your secret kept, keep it 
yourself." 

123. When a thought is borrowed, but not the exact 
language, the fact" may be indicated by using single quota- 
tion marks to enclose it. This usage, however, is not well 
established. It is generally better to use the double marks 
or to omit them altogether. 

His life was regulated by the rule of ' doing to others as he wished 
them to do to him.' 

This would be improved by omitting the marks. 

When the source from which the substance of a thought 
comes is distinctly noted, no quotation marks are ever 
required. 

One of the last remarks of Socrates was that the soul is immortal. 

Such quotations as this last are called indirect. 

124. In citing language from another of one's own com- 
positions, it is usual to employ quotation marks. 

In my " Lectures on Electricity," written ten years ago, I made the 
following prediction: " The day will come when electricity will do for 
the eye what, by means of the telephone, it is now doing for the ear." 

125. Foreign words and phrases, scientific namxcs, and 
single words of our language, when quoted as mere words, 
are commonly printed in Italic. The same is done in a 
limited measure with titles and names of various kinds, 
though in the case of these last, quotation marks are to be 
preferred. 

He was deficient in what the French call savolrfairc. 
We found some fine specimens of trailing arbutus {Epigcra rtprris). 
The word advice is the noun and advise the verb. 
Macaulay says that Shakespeare's Othello is the greatest work in 
the world. 

It would be better to use quotation marks — " Othello." 



;is I'lXCTUATloX AM) CAPITALIZATION. j< -iO 

Certain forci«^n words and well known abbreviations are 
usually printed in Roman. 

i. e., e. g., vice versa, etc.. X. B., P. S., R. S. V. P., O. E. D. 



RULE L. 

126. Quoted Quotations. — .i quotation zuitJiiu anotJicr 
is enclosed in suigle, not double, quotation marks. 

Some one remarks: "Gladstone was for nearly fifty years the 
•uncrowned king" of the British Empire." 

Where a quotation is made within a second quotation 
that has the single mark, the double mark must be again 
used. But this, on account of its extreme awkwardness, 
should be avoided. 

" The old doctor said to us one morning: ' You boys do not under- 
stand, 1 am sure, all that is implied by Huxley's "survival of the 
fittest. 

It is better to put the last four words in Italic than to 
enclose them between marks of quotation. 

127. If a quotation ends a sentence, judgment is often 
necessary in harmonizing the punctuation of the quotation 
with that of the entire sentence. 

"Were you not all agreeably startled by the lookout's hail, 'Ship, 
ahoy I'?' 

" Have you ever considered Job's significant query: ' If a man die, 
shall he live again ?' " 

Is the old saying ahva^-s defensible — "The end justifies the 
means " ? 

Did you hear any one ask the foolish question — " Where are we at" ? 



RULE LI. 

128. Consecutive Pai*ag:i"aphs Quoted. — Inverted 
commas should be placed at the begiuuiuo; of each of several 
consecutive quoted paragraphs, and apostrophes at the end of 
the last paragraph. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 30 

1 *^9. If portions of tlie original are omitted at intervals 
from the quotation, eaeh fragment that is eomplete in itself 
should be enclosed in quotation marks. 

When a quotation ends with marks of continuation, or if 
its completion is prevented by interruption, the punctuation 
denoting its unfinished character must be included within 
the marks of quotation. 

" What is your ?" " I object, your honor," shouted the plain- 
tiff's lawyer. 

" Do you remember the Golden Rule: ' Do unto others '?" 

Quite frequently in England, and to some extent in this 
country, inverted commas are placed at the beginning of 
each line of a quoted paragraph and apostrophes at the end 
of each paragraph. The objections to this are that it is 
unnecessary, and that it disfigures the page. This unsightly 
usage is not likely to become generally current. 



THE APOSTROPHE. 



KUI.E LII. 

130. Omission. — The apostropJic is used as a substitute 
for omitted letters or figures. 

I've, o'er, e'er, isn't, doesn't, don't, can't, shouldn't, we'll, I'll, you're, 
he's, Jan'y 25, '99. 

The apostrophe is used to denote plurals of figures and 
letters; as, mind your/'s and ^'s, etc. 



131. Possessive Case. — TJie apostrophe is used to denote 
the possessive ease of nouns and of a fe7^' pronouns. 

Deat/i s terrors, fo/in s hat, AV71' Vor/ys streets, the city of Hatti- 
more s monuments. 

One s own, neither s share, either s money, the other s house, o/tievs 
opinions, so?ne one s hat. 



io PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20 
LETTEKS A:SD CllAllACTEllS. 



SYSTEMS OF TYPE. 



THE OLD SYSTEM. 

132* Until a few years ago there was no general 
standard for the sizes of type. There were, indeed, certain 
well known kinds of type, such as long primer, pica, 
brevier, nonpareil, etc. ; but even when their names were 
alike, they were always slightly different in size if made at 
different foundries. No founder could be relied upon to 
keep his names and sizes constant from year to year. The 
result was that if pica, for example, bought at different 
foundries, was mixed and set together, neither lines nor 
columns could be made of exactly the same length. As the 
printers phrase it, the type would not ' ' justify. " To prevent 
letters, words, and even whole lines from dropping out after a 
form of type was "locked up" for printing from it, much tedi- 
ous and troublesome filling in with bits of paper and cardboard 
was necessary. So serious were the obstacles to taste, expedi- 
tion, and economy in printing, that the Type-Founders' Asso- 
ciation of the United States finally adopted the scale of sizes 
now known as the "Point" system. The system leaves 
little to be desired. The old names are no longer used, 
except in a historical way, or for purposes of comparison 
with the new names. It makes no difference now where a 
printer buys his type, for the output of all foundries will 
' ' justify " when set together. Then, again, the strips of type 
metal called "leads," by which the distances between lines 
may be varied, are regulated in thickness by the system of 
points. As a consequence, the length of one page may be 
made exactly equal to that of another, no matter how many 
sizes of type may compose them. Since many persons do 
not understand this system thoroughly, although it is of 
much interest and importance, an explanation in detail is 
given here. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 41 

THE "POINT" SYSTEM. 

183. The fundamental unit of measure of this system 
is the "point." To obtain this, a length of 35 centimeters 
(almost exactly If inches) is divided into 996 equal parts. 
A point is, therefore, .03514 centimeter, or .0138+ inch. 
This is taken among printers as y^ of an inch, but in reality, 
it is less by about j^q^ of an inch. This is used to measure 
the height or l?odj/ of type. Thus, 3-point type, which is the 
smallest type made, is very nearly y\, or J^, of an inch high; 
so that, if 24 lines of such type be set without "leads" 
between the lines, they will occupy 1 inch, very nearly, in 
the length of the page. Of 8-point type, the "body" is -^-j, 
or i of an inch; 9 lines of this, without leads, would make 
1 page-inch. Similarly, 6 lines of 12-point, 4 lines of 18-point, 
3 lines of 24-point, etc. would each fill a page -inch. Hence, 
generally, if 72 be divided by the points that measure a given 
kind of type, the quotient will show the number of unleaded 
lines to a page-inch. (It must be remembered that an inch 
is not exactly 72 points, but 72. 46-|- points.) 

The various kinds of type made under the " point " system 
correspond more or less nearly to the kinds with old-fashioned 
names. This correspondence is shown in the table below. 
Of these, the standard of measurement was pica, and this is so 
very closely represented by 12-point, that the name pica is 
now used among printers to mean 12-point, or type with J of an 
inch body. The thickness of leads and the length of lines arc 
estimated in pica size. Thus, leads are spoken of as Ji--to-pica, 
6-to-pica, etc. , meaning that 4, 6, etc. leads equal pica thick- 
ness — 12 points, or \ of an inch. Hence, one G-to-pica lead is 2 
points, or J^ of an inch in thickness. Again, a page 24 picas 
wide is 24 times \ of an inch, or 4 inches in width. 

Under this system, "justification," even when many differ- 
ent sizes of type are used, is no longer difficult or wasteful 
of time, as was the case under the old system. If properly 
set and "locked up, "no type will slip from place or fall out. 

The point system would be perfect if tlie thic^kness oC lyp(^ 
as well as the height or width of body were in ])()ints also. 
This is not yet the case generally, but doubtless it soon will 



42 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. ^ 20 



be, for at least one foundry is now advertising type made by 
the ''point-set" or "lining" system. This means the estab- 
lishment of a point ratio between the height and the width 
of type. The foundry referred to makes its Roman type so- 
as to have a certain point-width for each letter or character 
as well as a point-height. 

Thus, 10-point f, i, j, 1, i, etc. are each 3 points wide; s, z, j, 
etc. are 4 points; a, g, o, v, y, etc. are 4i points; and so on. 

When this is done for type of all sizes, and done in the 
same way by all type foundries, and when quads and spaces 
are made from the point as a unit, the point system will be 
practically perfect. 

134. Old Style and Point Sizes. — The following table 
gives the old names of type, with their approximate value in 
points : 



Old Names. 



Paragon 

Great Primer. 

English 

Pica 

Small Pica.. . . 
Long Primer. 
Bourgeois . . . . 

Brevier 

^linion 

Emerald 

Nonpareil . . . . 
Agate or Rub} 

Pearl 

Diamond 

Gem 

Brilliant.. .... 

Excelsior 



Points, 

Nearly. 



Body or 

Height. 

Inch. 



20 

IS 
14 
12 
11 
10 



8 

^ 

G 
H 





1 1 
_i_ 

1 2 
1 3 
1'4 



Lines 
to Inch. 



3.6 

I 
5.14 

G 
G-55 
7.2 

8 

9 
10.3 
11.1 

12 
13.17 



Ito 4},^ig.to3-Vl6 to IS 
18.5 
20. G 
24 



j[ 

1 -s 

J 

2 
24 



Roman. 



Paragon 

Great Primer 



English 

Pica 

Small Pica 

Long Prime 

Bourgeois 

Brevier 

Minion 

Emerald 

Nonpareil 

Agate or Ruby 

Pearl 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 43 

MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 

135. Many different marks, named and unnamed, are in 
use among printers. The most important of these are placed 
here in alphabetical order for convenience of reference. 

136. Accents. — There are three marks of accents; the 
acute ('), the grave ("), and the circumflex (^,^'^). The 
acute is the accent most frequently used. It denotes that 
the vowel or syllable above or after which it is placed is to 
be pronounced with a marked stress of the voice ; as, 
a-cu'-men. This accent is either primary as shown above or 
secondary (''). The secondary acute accent is used to denote 
a less marked stress of the voice than the primary requires ; 
as, ac-cen"-tu-a'-tion. The grave accent denotes a falling 
tone ; or it may show that a vowel not usually sounded is to be 
pronounced in a certain word. This frequently happens in 
poetry; as, 

" Caesar's ambition shall be glanced at." 

The circiiniflex denotes that a vowel is to be sounded with 
both a rising and a falling inflection, as in sarcasm or irony. 
It is also used to mark a long vowel, as in pere. 

137. Apostrophe. — The apostrophe (') is used ((^) to 
indicate an omission; as, e'eii^ and {b) to denote the posses- 
sive case; as, man's duty ^ Moses's sayings. 

138. Brace. — The brace \ \ is used in grouping. 

[by 1 [gold 

Homes j over \ the sea. \ \a — {b + c)\ — d )■ Coin { silver 



under j •- [^copper 

139. Brackets. — The brackets [ ] are used for enclosing 
other characters, indicated prontmciations, matter inserted 
in sentences but not closely connected, and for many other 
purposes. 

140. Caret. — The caret (^) marks the insertion of a 

a 
word or a letter accidentally omitted; as, sepratc, Honesty is 

best 
ihCf^policy. 



U PI ^XTUATIOX AND CAPITALIZATION. § ^O 

141. Cedilla. — The cidilla (f ) is a mark placed under 
the letter c when it occurs before «, o^ or «, in some Romance 
langTiages, It indicates that r is to be sounded like s\ as, 
garccn, facadt, Francois. 

142. Dieresis. — A dieresis ( " ) placed over the second 
of two adjacent vowels shows that they belong to separate 
syllables; as, zoology^ aerate. This mark is usually omitted; 
as, eooptrate, noology'j rtiterati. 

143. Ditto >larkjs. — These marks (•) are used to 
denote that something is to be understood as repeated from 
immediately above. When any word or expression with its 
accompanying punctuation is to be repeated, the fact is indi- 
cated by writing ditto marks instead or by writing do. The 
word ditto is the Italian form of the Latin dictum. **a thing 
that has been said. " This abbreviation is much used in book- 
keeping. Excepting its punctuation, it is usually repeated 
for each separate part of an expression ; or, it may stand for 
an entire expression. The following will illustrate : 

Creditor by investment, Febraary 1, 1893. ^.8dl.2o 

" \ net gain, " 296.38 

Jan- 3, To 48 yd. Union ginghams, (g .12|. $6.00 

'* 60 *• Amoskeag do. *• .15 , 9.00 

144. Ellipsis. — There are several kinds of marks that 
denote ellipsis or omissions. The principal of these are the 

following: 

(*****>. r : as. The P******3 

formerly belonged to S n. but they have been ceded to the 

U d S s. owing chieflv to the vigorous action of Admiral 

D y. 

(a + b)' = a« + 6.i^^^ ^Qab''^b\ 

145. Empliasis. — Special attention to a statement is 
generally denoted by an index, or fist ( *@=° ). The term 
*'fist" is preferred among printers; indeed, they rarely use 
the old name, index. 

146. IT>^>lleIl. — T\i^ hyphen (-) has several uses: (1) 
to connect the elements of compound words, as, for instance. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 45 

good-natured ; (2) to denote the syllabication of words; 
as, re-al-i-ty; (3) to show that a word is unfinished at the 
end of a line (see Art. 143 for an example). 

147. Paragraph. — The paragraph (^) is used in 
manuscript to denote that the matter following it should 
be separated by an interval from what precedes. 

148. Marks of Quantity. — These are (1) the macron 
( ~ ), used to denote the long sound of a vowel; a.^^ fdte^ 
(2) the breve ( "^ ), denoting the short sound of a vowel; as, 
atomic; the double [ " ], to denote common or doubtful 

quantity; as, slione, 'eat. 

149. Reference Marks. — Letters and numbers are now 
generally preferred for referring to notes or other matter 
not strictly belonging in the text. The following were 
formerly much used for this purpose : {a) the star, or asterisk 
(*) ;- {b) the dagger, or obelisk (f ) ; [c) the double dagger {\) ; 
{d) the section (§); [e) the parallel (||); (/) the paragraph 
{^). When references are sufficiently numerous on a page 
to exhaust these marks, they may be doubled; as (ff), (§§), 
etc. The section and paragraph were formerly much 
employed to indicate subdivisions of subject matter. 

150. Tilde. — This mark (^) is placed above ;/ in Span- 
ish words to denote that it is to be sounded like ny ; as, 
sehor [pro. se-nydr'\ manana [pro. man-yaJi' -nah\ cafwiu 



USE OF CAPITALS. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 

151. In order to give distinction to certain words, larger 
letters called capitals may be employed as initials. Before 
the invention of printing, when books were made entirely 
by writing, the first or head {caput, **head") letters of i)rin- 
cipal divisions were generally embellished, and were larger 



4(i PUxXCTUATlOX AND CAPITALIZATIOX. § 2U 

and more conspicuous than those forms ordinarily used. 
The matter from one capital to the next was a cJiaptcr 
[capitu/inn, from caput). 

In the German language every noun formerly began with 
a capital letter, but in late German literature this usage is 
falling into discredit. Indeed, the excessive use of embel- 
lishment in printing is offensive to refined taste, just as it is 
in the matter of dress and many other things. A xevy good 
general principle in such matters would be : Too little decora- 
tion is better than too much; the best taste is the simplest. 



RULE LrV^. 

152. Headings. — Title pages of books, headings of essays 
and chapters, and of magazine and neivspaper articles, should 
be icJwlly in capitals. 

So many varieties of display type have been devised of 
late years that printers often use them where plain capitals 
would be in better taste. 



RULE EV. 

153. First AVorcls. — Begin luitJi a capital, the first Zi'ord 
of a note, letter, legal or other document; of a ivritten or 
printed essay, preface, tract, lecture, magazine or newspaper 
article; of a book, chapter, section, or paragraph; of every 
direct quotation or question, and of every line of poetry. 

154. After the initial capital of the first word in a 
document of the kinds indicated in the rule, the remainder 
of the word is usually printed in small capitals. If the first 
word is an article or other short unimportant word, the 
second also should be in small capitals. The following are 
intended to represent such first words: 

Once upon a time there was a great king etc. 

A SWEEPING criticism upon the use and abuse of etc. 

When King Richard was returning from the Holy Land etc. 

Orthography is now as well settled as it will probably etc, 



§ 30 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 47 

155. This same use of capitals and small capitals is no\v 
increasingly common in the subdivisions of chapters. The 
following heading and subdivisions of a chapter are copied 
from a book lately published by a firm widely known for its 
excellent taste in the usages of good printing. 

CHAPTER XI. 

(Heading) COMPOUND WORDS. 

f General Principles 
(Subheads) -{ Compound Nouns Made of Two Nouns 

Some Words Used as Inseparable Suffixes 



RULE liVI. 

156. Examples and Numbered Items. — Begin with 
capitals the initial ivords of examples and of numbered items 
if they are complete sentences. 

A proverb is a wise saying ; as, Honesty is the best policy. 

15*7. When items are mere words, phrases, or clauses of 
no special prominence, capitals are unnecessary. 

Letters are divided into two classes; (1) vowels, (2) consonants. 
Astronomers tell us (1) that the surface of Jupiter is nearly red hot; 
(2) that it is incapable of supporting organic life; (8) that etc. 

In technical and other treatises, subjects of chief interest, 
when given as numbered items, require capitals. 

In the following chapter we shall treat; (1) of Exponents, (2) of 
Radical Quantities, (3) of etc. 

With respect to matters that belong under this rule, usage 
is by no means uniform. Taste and consistency must deter- 
mine what is best in each case. 



I 



RULE luVIl. 

158. Quoted Titles. — In quoting titles of books, essays, 
poems, etc., capitalize nou}is,pro)iou}is, adjectives [not articles), 
verbs and adverbs. 

Whitney's "Life and Growth of Language"; Tyndall's "Hours of 
Exercise in the Alps." 



48 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. S 20 



159. The foregoing is the rule in common use, but it is 
often inexpedient in practice. A late writer gives the fol- 
lowing rule as better than that given above : 

/// headings capitalize all important^ emphatic, and con- 
trasted Zi'ords. 

When it is remembered that a common usage is not to 
capitalize prepositions, conjunctions, and articles, the need 
for the rule just given will be seen. In titles or heads of 
chapters, words usually unimportant become important on 
account of emphasis, contrast, etc. 

Acting With and Acting Against. 
Concerning the Use of "A" and "An." 
Should it be " Of" or " From" ? 



RULE LVIir. 

160. Names of Deity. — Xamcs and titles of God and 
Christ should begin with capitals. 

Jehovah, Father, Creator. Son of God, Almighty, Supreme Being. 
First Cause, Infinite One, etc. 

161. Adjectives used with names of Deity require no 
capitals imless they are to be regarded as a necessary part of 
the names. Hence, 

The all-wise Father, the divine Master, the merciful Father, Lord 
God omnipotent 

The following are taken from a recent edition of the Bible : 

Lord God Almighty (in address), the Most High, the Holy One, the 
King of glory, the God of heaven. I am the good shepherd, that great 
Shepherd, the God of peace. Son -of man. Lord of lords and King of 
kings, etc. 

These will serve to show that modifying phrases should 
not in general be capitalized. 

A pronoun having as antecedent some name of Deity 
need not for that reason alone be capitalized. This is done 
to an absurd extent, especially in printed hymns and prayers. 



* 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 49 

nVLK I AX. 

Iij2, lionian Numerals. — Numbers required in refer- 
ring to passages in books are sometimes denoted by capital 
letters. 

Spencer's "Sociology," Vol. II, Part V, Chap. VIII, §494, p. 409. 

Later usage seems to prefer small letters. 

Whatley's "Logic," book ii, ch. iii, § v, p. 118. 

References to passages in the Bible are now generally 
given in the following manner : 

I Ki. 3:1; Judg. 3:8-10; Matt. 7:9, 12-15; 13:8-15. 



RULE LX. 

163. Proper Karnes. — Begin all proper names zvith 
capitals. 

Albert, Napoleon, Russia, the Pacific, August, Saturday, Easter. 

164. When a name is made tip of two or more elements 
one of which is an ordinary class name, only the specific 
element should be capitalized. 

The Arctic ocean, the Spanish main, the Dead sea, Aleutian islands, 
Yukon river. Decoration day, the sabbath day or the Sabbath day. 
Wall street. Fifth avenue, etc. 

Usage in this matter is by no means uniform, but economy 
in the use of capitals is generally better than the opposite 
practice. In naming streets, well known buildings or other 
structures, it is common to begin every element with a 
capital. 

Washington Avenue, Park Row, Brooklyn Bridge, Bunker ITill 
Monument, etc. 

165. When the specific element of a geographical name 
follows the generic, and no article precedes, both should 
usually begin with capitals; as, Lake Como, Mt. Washington, 
Rio Grande {rio = river), Cape May, etc. But wc should 
write, the river Thames, the lake Victoria Nyanaa, the 



50 PUNCTUATION AND UAPUrALIZATION. §•.>(» 

f'liiitisiila of Arnhiii, tlie slali of Xnc J trsiw the land k^)\ the 
Midfiij^/i/ Siiii OY i/iid/UL^/ii sim^ tlic /ti/i(li.A Xo(/, of boni/agi\ 
oi proJ/iisi\ etc. 

Words denoting" direction, when used to name countries or 
districts, should have initial capitals. 

They live in the South, the trappers of the Northwest, the Orient^ 
the Occident, the Levant, the Far Jl'est, the Borea/ regions, etc. 

166. The names of the chief of the evil spirits and the 
places and characters of mythology should begin with capitals 
when they are used strictly as proper names: the same is true 
of the constellations; as, Satan, Zeus, Pinto, Hades, Gehenna, 
S/ieol, ]\nns, Sojnnus, Belial, Orion, Libra, Elysium, etc. 

Exceptions to this are, devil, Jieaven, hell, paradise, 
purgatory, pandemonium, and some others of very frequent 
use. 

16T. When a compound word contains an element 
derived from a proper noun, that element should begin 
with a capital only when a hyphen precedes. 

Antichrist or antichrist, post-Homeric, Preraffaelite, preadamite, 
antenicene, etc. 



RULE LXI. 

168. Sacred AVritingrs. — Expressions used to denote 
li'ritings regarded as sacred, or any portion of sueJi zcriti)igs, 
should be written luith initial capitals. 

The Holy Bible, the Good Book, the Sacred Scriptures, the Old 
Testament, the Pentateuch, the Koran, the Zend-Avesta, the Vedas. 



RrLE LXTT. 

169. Derivations from Proper Xanies. — JWvds 
derived from proper names generally begin with capitals. 

Hebraic, Jovian, Romance, Brahminic, Teutonic, Mohammedan, 
Spanish, Elizabethan, etc. 

170. Many words derived from proper names arc now 
written with small initials. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 51 

Damask, china, simony, stentorian, licrcnlcan, tantali/.c, licctor, 
philippic, boreal, argosy, cyclopeaii, hermetical, epicure, cashmere, 
champagne, oceanic, hymeneal, mercurial, volcanic, etc. 

The names of the elements and of minerals, whether 
derived from proper names or not, should begin with small 
letters; as, gallitim, scandium^ danaite, caledonite, etc. 



RULE LXIII. 

171. Zoological Names. — /;/ writing the do2tble scien- 
tific names of animal organisms^ only the first ofi generic 
element should be capitalized. 

Crotalus horridus (rattlesnake), Sahno clarkii (trout of Columbia 
river). 

Even when a variety term is added it should always be 
written with a small initial. 

Athyaferina, van ainericana (Red-headed Duck). 



KULE LXn^. 

173. Botanical ]S"ames. — Generic names in botany 
should ahvays begin with capitals, and specific names also, if 
they are derived from proper names. 

Claytonia Virginica, Epigcea repeats, Fragaria Virgijiiaiia, van 
ntmcenisis. 

173. It is unfortunate that there should be a difference 
in the matter of capitalization between botanical and zoologi- 
cal names. But it should be noted that some standard 
works are abandoning initial capitals for specific names in 
botany. Thus, in Loudon's "Encyclopedia of Botany" 
specific terms derived from the names of countries arc 
written without capitals; as, persica, japonica, calif oniiea, 
jamaicensis, chinensis, etc. This is as it should be, and it 
is to be hoped that the usage in botany may soon conform 
with that in zoology. Specific botanical terms derived f i om 
the names of persons are, however, generally capitab"zed. 



b'Z PUXCTUATIOX AND CAPITALIZATION. § >\) 

i:i LF. I. XV. 

1«4. l*ei->»oiiilicatiou. — /// viviii ptrsonificatioii^ tJie 
pirsonifiid noun should btgin zcitli a capital. 

"With eyes upraised, as one inspired. 

Pale Melancholy sate retired." — Collins. 
" And Melancholy marked him for his own." — Gray. 

This usage is less common now than formerly, and is 
confined almost entirely to poetr\'. Even there, the best 
\\-riters employ it but rarely. The following seem better as 
their authors give them, and yet the personification is strong 

in each : 

" Friends depart, and memory takes them 
To her caverns, pure and deep." — Bayly. 

*' Moping melancholy. 
And moon-struck madness." — Milton. 

It was formerly the rule to capitalize the following : nature, 
the Seasons — springs summer, autumn, zvinttr^ timt, the 
hours, daiini, night, the graces, the muses, music, and 
many other inanimate things, especially in poetr}-. This, 
however, is not now considered in the best taste, unless 
the personification is peculiarly strong. 



RULE LX\T^. 

175. Terms Defined . — / / 'ords to be defined or explained 
are either capitalized or printed in heavy type or in Italic. 

A Verb is a word etc. A verb is a word etc. A pronoun is a 
word that denotes persons or things without naming them. 

Under this rule may be included ordinary- words occurring 
in the body of the text, and regarded as of extraordinary' 
importance. 

The region was in the heart of Ethiopia near the source of the river 
Zaire. Over the region there brooded a Presence — a Shadow, weird, 
intangible, oppressive. 

It should be remarked that this is one of the tricks or 
devices employed in what has been contemptuously called 
*' fine ^vriting. " For true excellence the ordinary resources of 
expression are always sufficient [see, however, rule LXVIII]. 



§ 20 PUNCTyATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 53 

nuijE j^xvir. 

176. Titles. — l^tt/es of honor, respect, and office should 
begin ivith capitals. 

His Honor the Mayor, His Excellency the Governor, Your Royal 
Highness, Dear Sir, My dear Madam, etc. 

When used in a specific sense, as in rules, reports, and 
documents, such words as president, cJiairman, directors, 
committee, school, institution, congress, etc. should be cap- 
italized; in ordinary generic use, small letters should be used. 

Official or honorary titles, when prefixed to proper names, 
should have initial capitals. 

Professor Whitney, President McKinley, Admiral Dewey, Governor 
Roosevelt, Peace Commissioner Schurman, Pope Leo, Secretary of 
State John Hay. 

Prefixed terms denoting mere relationship should begin 
with small letters; as, cousin John, aunt Mary, nncle Smith. 
When, however, these words do not denote real but official 
relationship, as is the case of officials in the Roman Catholic 
church, capitals are required; as, Brother Asanas, Sister 
Dorcas, etc. 

RULE LXVIIT. 

177. Important Words. — Words and expressions that 
for any reason are of special importance, are capitalized in 
the same manner as quoted titles. 

Such are the following: 

{a) Events. 

The Siege of Troy, the War of the Rebellion, the War of the Span- 
ish Succession, Battle of Manila Bay. 

{b) Epochs. 

The Renaissance, the Age of Stone, the Reformation, the Chrisliai, 
Era. 

(c) Phenomena. 

The Milky Way, the Gulf Stream, tlie Aurora Borcalis, the Midnight 
Sun. 

When such matters are introduced informally, and witliout 
obvious intention to emphasize their itnportance, unncccs- 



t>\ PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATiON. §20 

sary capitals arc to be a\'oiclcd. It is by discriminating 
carefully in such cases that a writer may show his good 
taste. 

RULE LXIX. 

178» I and O. — The pronoun I and the interjection O 

should always be capitals. 

The interjection oJi should not be written with a capital, 
tmless, as is often the case, it begins a sentence or a line of 
poetry. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING, 

(PART 1.) 



INTl^ODUCTORY. 



pri:n^ciples anb rule. 

1, Bookkeeping. — Bookkeeping is the science of 
accounts, and teaches how to preserve a correct record of all 
business transactions. There are two distinct methods of 
keeping accounts, called single-eittry bookkeeping and double- 
entry bookkeeping. 

In this Instruction Paper it is intended to give the student 
such a full and complete understanding of the theory and 
elements of double-entry bookkeeping as will enable him to 
keep books, by this method, for any ordinary kind of busi- 
ness, and if the examples herein illustrated and explained 
are exactly and conscientiously followed, a valuable knowl- 
edge of business and bookkeeping will surely be acquired. 

2. Bookkeeping and Its Uses. — Books of account are 
kept, in some manner, by every person doing business. 
This is done that they may know who owes them, and wIk^hi 
they owe; also that they may know the extent of their busi- 
ness, its receipts and expenditures. 

§27 

For notice of the copyriglit, see paji^e iinniediately followiii.v; tlu- title [KU'e. 



2 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 27 

'A, Sini^lc Entry.- "The object of single-entry book- 
keeping- is to keep account of our detilings with other parties, 
none but personal accounts being kept. If \ve can at all 
times tell just how much other parties are owing us and just 
how much we are owing other parties, we have done all that 
is intended to be accomplished by single entry. 

4. Double Entry. — In double-entry bookkeeping we 
keep an account with every class of property in which we 
deal, and also with every person we have dealings with on 
account. In double entry we make a debit and a credit 
entry for every business transaction, thus making an entry 
to two or more accounts, according to the number affected 
by the transaction. That is to say, every time we debit an 
account we credit some other account, or accounts, for the 
same amount; hence, double entry. In single entry we make 
an entry only when a personal account is affected, simply 
debiting or crediting the person, making such entry to only 
one account ; hence, single entry. The two main principles 
of bookkeeping are expressed by the terms debit and credit. 
Remember that both of these principles are used in every 
transaction in double-entry bookkeeping. Thoroughly learn 
the following rule, carefully committing it to memory. If 
you strictly follow this rule, you will never make a mistake 
in your bookkeeping entries. This rule is for both single 
and double entry. 

5, Rule. — Debit: What you receive or what costs you 
value. Credit : WJiat you part witJi or luJiat prodicces yoti 
value. 

AVlien to Debit — 

Cash. — When you receive it. 

Merchandise. — When you receive it. 

Bills Receivable. — When you receive a note. 

Bills Receivable. — When you receive an accepted time draft 

The Party. — When you trust any one. 

The Party. — When you pay any one. 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

When to Credit— 

Cash. — When you give it out. 

Merchandise. — When you sell it. 

Bills Payable. — When you give a note. 

Bills Payable. — When you accept a time draft. 

The Party. — When he pays you. 

The Party. — When he trusts you. 

The Party. — On whom you draw a draft. 



MERCANTII.E TERMS, ABBREVIATIONS, SIGNS, 
AND CHARACTERS. 



I 



MERCANTILE TERMS. 

6, The lists of commercial words and phrases given on 
the succeeding pages are very complete, and a clear and 
comprehensive knowledge of them and their application will 
be found necessary to every student of commercial science. 

Accept. — To so acknowledge by signature as to bind for 
payment. 

Acceptance. — A draft or bill of exchange that has been 
accepted. Usually done by the acceptor (drawee) writing 
his name across the face of the draft in red ink, together 
with the word " Accepted " and the date. 

Acconiniodation Paper. — Notes or bills to be discounted, 
not founded on actual indebtedness. The party who thus 
signs a note does so without any consideration, and the one 
who is thus accommodated is to provide for the payment of 
the note when due. Merchants may exchange accommoda- 
tion notes, and thus each may raise money in places where 
the other's credit is good, but his own is not. 

Account. — A formal statement of debits and credits. 

Accountant. — One skilled in keeping accounts; a pro- 
fessional bookkeeper. 



4 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 27 

Account Books. — Books made -and used for keeping 
accounts. 

Account Current. — A detailed statement showing the 
current or running condition of an account during a certain 
period of time. 

Account Sales. — A detailed statement of the sale of 
goods by a commission merchant, showing also the expenses, 
after charges, and net proceeds. 

Accrued. — Accumulated ; as, interest due and unpaid. 

AcknoAvledgnient. — A formal admission made before an 
officer that the act described was voluntarily performed. 

Ad Valorem. — According to value. A custom-house term 
relating to duties upon imported goods. 

Advice. — A notice of a bill drawn; information with ref- 
erence to a shipment ; any mercantile information. 

Affidavit. — A written declaration made under oath. 

Agent. — One who acts for another ; a deputy. 

Agreement. — The meeting of minds; a contract. 

Allowance. — A deduction from the gross weight of goods; 
an abatement. 

Annuity. — A sum to be paid yearly in fee, or for life. 

Antedate. — To date before the actual time of writing. 

Appraise. — To estimate the value of goods or property, 
as for the purpose of taxation, etc. 

Appurtenances. — Those things which appertain or belong 
to something else; as, the buildings and fences to the farm 
on which they stand. 

Articles. — Divisions of a written or printed agreement, as 
articles of copartnership; things or commodities, as articles 
Qi merchandise. 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 5 

Assets.— The funds, property, and total resources of a 
person in business. 

Assign. — To transfer or make over to another, usually for 
the benefit of creditors. 

Assignee. — The person to whom the affairs of an insolvent 
debtor are referred for adjustment, usually a trustee of the 
creditors. 

Assignment. — The formal transfer of property to an 
assignee. 

Assignor. — The one who assigns his property for the 
benefit of his creditors. 

Assume. — To take upon one's self the risk or liabilities of 
another. 

Attachment. — A legally executed claim on property; a 
warrant for the seizure of goods to satisfy debt. 

Auxiliary. — (Helping.) Applied to such account books 
as are kept merely as aids to the principal books. 

Average. — A proportional share of a general loss, usually 
applied to the loss of goods at sea; also a mean time of pay- 
ment for several debts due at different times. 

Balance. — To close an account ; difference between debits 
and credits. 

Balance of Trade. — Difference between the exports and 
imports of a country. 

Balance Sheet. — A statement in condensed form, showing 
the condition and progress of business. 

Bank. — An institution, generally incorporated, authorized 
to receive deposits of money, to lend money, and to issue 
promissory notes — usually called bank notes — or to perform 
some one or more of these functions. 

Bank of Deposit.— A bank for the custody and employ 
ment of money entrusted to its care by its customers. 



I 



6 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § x>: 

liaiik of Discount. — A bank for the loaning of money 
upon commercial paper and collateral securities. 

Bank of Issue. — A bank that, besides employing or lend- 
ing the money entrusted to it, is authorized to issue notes of 
its own. 

35aiik IJalance. — Net amount on deposit at bank. 

Bank Book. — The pass book of the depositor, in which 
the receiving teller ^\Tites the separate deposits. The book- 
keeper enters the paid checks at stated intervals. 

Bank Bills or Xotes. — Promissor}' notes printed by the 
government and issued by national banks, payable on demand, 
and used as money. 

Bankrupt. — One who fails in business and is unable to 
pay his debts. 

Bank Stock. — Shares in a banking establishment. 

Bill. — (Bill, the beak of a bird, is from the Anglo-Saxon 
word bilL a sharp-pointed tool or instrument of defense — 
hence a sword, a pickax ; but bill in commercial science is 
from the French vrord billet^ a label stating value. ) A detailed 
statement of goods bought or sold; a negotiable instrument; 
a draft or an act before being passed by the legislature ; also 
variously used in combination as follows : 

Bill of Excliange. — An order for the payment of money, 
usually drawn on a person or a bank in another country-, the 
lerm draft being used to designate bills that are payable in 
the same countr}^ in which they are drawn. 

Bill of Lading. — A written account of goods shipped and 
the condition of shipment, signed by the carrier's agent and 
g^ven to the shipper as a receipt. 

Bill of Sale. — A writing given by the seller to the buyer, 
transferring the ownership of personal property. 

Bill Book. — A book containing the particulars of our notes 
issued and other notes receive^^. 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 7 

Billhead. — A printed form on which to render bills. 
Bills Payable. — Notes and acceptances payable by us. 

Bills Receivable. — Notes and acceptances of others pay- 
able to us. 

Blanks. — Books and papers ruled to forms suitable for 
business purposes. 

Blotter. — (The Day Book.) Book of original entry con- 
taining a history of transactions in the order of their occur- 
rence. 

Book Account. — An entry or charge in the books in con- 
tradistinction from a note or written promise. 

Breakage. — An allowance on goods imported in bottles. 

Broker. — An agent or middleman between the buyer and 
the seller. 

Brokerage. — The percentage or commission charged by 
a broker for his services. 

Cancel. — To annul; to destroy; to render void. 

■ Capital. — Investment in business. 

Capital Stock. — The joint or aggregate paid-in capital of 
the stockholders in corporate institutions. 

Cartage. — The charges for conveying goods by carts oi 
wagons. 

Cash. — Coin, bank notes, checks, etc., that pass as money. 

Certilicate. — A written or printed testimony ; as, a certifi- 
cate of deposit, a certificate of stock. 

Certified Check. — A check that has been acknowledged 
good by the bank on which it is drawn. 

Charges. — The expenses incurred in handlinggoods, more 
especially thogc bought and sole} on v<>i"i)""ii^^i<^ii- 



8 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 27 

Chattels. — Movable things; personal property. 

Check. — An order on a bank dra\\Ti by a depositor. 

Closing an Account. — Making an entry to balance it. 

Closing Unes. — The ruling lines dra'vs'n after an account 
is balanced and footed. 

Collaterals. — Pledges of stock, notes, or chattels for 
security of loans and other indebtedness. 

Coinniission. — A percentage allowed for selling goods or 
transacting business. 

Comniereial Paper. — Notes, drafts, and other written 
orders for the payment of money used in trade. 

Considei'ation. — The material cause that moves a party 
to enter into a contract; not the motive or moral cause, but 
the price or stipulated amount that may be expressed in 
money value. 

Consignee. — The agent or person to whom goods are sent 
to be sold on commission. The goods are said to be 
consigned, and are called by the one who receives them a 
consignment. 

Consignor. — The party who thus consigns his goods to 
an agent. The consignor calls such goods a shipment to 
distinguish them from. other goods that he himself may have 
received to be sold on commission, and which he, in turn, 

calls a consignment. 

Contract. — An agreement for a lawful consideration to do 
or not to do something possible and la^^-ful to be done. 

Conveyance. — A legal do<^ument transferring the 
ownership of land or other property from one person to 
another. 

Cooperage. — Expenses paid for repairing casks, boxes^ 
etc. 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 9 

Date. — A statement of the day of the month and year 
when a letter was written or a transaction effected. 

Days of Gi'ace. — The days allowed for the payment of a 
note or bill after the time specified has expired. In most 
countries three such days are allowed before the bill is 
legally due. 

Deed. — A sealed instrument used in the conveyance of 
real estate ; any legal instrument under seal. 

Demand.— Asking by authority; a claim by right. 

Deposit. — Money left in a bank subject to order. 

Discount. — A deduction; the sum allowed for payment 
of a bill before due; the sum paid as interest in advance 
for money at a bank. 

Dishonor. — Failure to pay when due ; refusal to accept a 
draft. 

Dividend. — Gain to be divided among the stockholders 
in a joint-stock company. 

DouT3le Entry. — A system of bookkeeping by which the 
debits and credits in any transaction are equal in amount. 

Draft. — A written order or request for the payment of 
money at a certain time. 

Drawee. — One on whom the draft is drawn; the payer. 

Drawer. — The person who draws the draft, and thus asks 
the drawee to pay to the payee named. 

Drayage. — Charges for hauling goods on drays or wagons. 

Due Bill. — A brief written acknowledgment of debt, hav- 
ing the effect of a promissory note without time to run. 

Duplicate. — A copy; a transcript of any document. 

Endorse. — To guarantee; to write one's name on the 
back of a note or bill. 



10 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 27 

Knrtoi'see. — The person in whose favor a bill is endorsed. 
Kndoi*ser. — The person who endorses. 

Kxteiid. — In accounts, to add the items and carry the 
totals out into their proper columns. 

Face. — The amount for which a bill is drawn. 

Facsimile. —An exact copy. 

Favor. — A polite term for a letter received. A bill or 
note is said to be drawn in favor of the one to whom it is 
made payable. 

Fixtures. — That part of the furniture of a store or office 
which is not movable; as, the gas pipes, partitions, etc. 

Freiglit. — Goods in transit; the price paid for transpor- 
tation. 

Gain. — Increase in wealth; profit. 

Good AVill. — The reputation and patronage that pertains 
to an established business; also, the personal interest and 
influence. of a withdrawing partner apart from that shown 
by his account. 

Gross Weight. — Weight of goods including box and 
packing. 

Instant. — Present; current; the present month. (Prox- 
imo, next month; ultimo, last month.) 

Insurance Policy. — The instrument containing the con- 
tract between the insurance company and the party insured. 

Interest. — The use of money; premium paid for the use 
of money ; right or share in a business. 

Inventory. — An itemized schedule or list of goods and 
other property, with their value as then estimated. 

luA-estnient. — The laying out of money in the purchase 
of property or ^oods. 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 1] 

Invoice. - -A list of goods bought or sold, received from 
abroad or about to be shipped. 

InA^oice Book. — A book in which invoices are copied or 
placed. 

Jobber. — One who buys goods from manufacturers and 
importers, and sells them to retailers. 

Job Lot. — An irregular assortment; miscellaneous goods 
unsold at the end of a season. 

Joint Stock. — Property held in common by a company of 
men, each of whom is called a stockholder. 

Journal. — A book in which the debits and credits of a 
transaction are arranged preparatory to posting. 

Judgment. — The decree of a court enforcing a contract 
or redressing a wrong. 

Judgment N"ote. — A promissory note in the usual form, 
with the addition of the power to confess judgment if not 
paid. 

Junior Partner. — The youngest member of a firm. 

Ijeakage. — An allowance made for loss or waste on liquids 
transported in casks. 

licase. — A contract granting possession and use of prop- 
erty for a specified time. 

Ledger. — The chief book of accounts, in which the results 
of business are arranged under suitable headings. 

Legal Tender. — (Lawful offer. ) The name given to such 
currency as the law declares shall be received in payment of 
all ordinary debts. 

Lessee. — One to whom a lease is made. 

Letter of Advice. — A letter containing a notice of a ship- 
ment, or of a bill being drawn, or of some act in which the 
party receiving has an interest. 



13 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 2? 

JjrKcr of Attorney. — Written authority to act for another. 

iietter of Credit. — An open letter authorizing the bearer 
to receive money on the credit of the writer. (Generally 
issued by banking houses to travelers in foreign countries.) 

Ijiabilities. — Debts owed by an individual or firm. 

IjOSS and Gain. — The title of an account showing the 
profit and loss in business. 

Maker. — The signer of a note. 

Mercantile Agency. — A company Vv^hose business is to 
obtain and circulate among its patrons information as to the 
business standing of merchants and traders. 

Merchandise. — The usual articles of trade. That which 
is bought to sell again, as distinguished from that which is 
bought to use. 

Money Order. — An order on a third party requesting him 
to pay to the person named a certain sum. 

Mortgage. — The pledge of land, goods, or chattels to 
secure the payment of a debt. 

Mortgagee. — The person in whose favor the mortgage is 
given. 

Mortgagor. — The person who gives a mortgage. 

National Banlv. — Banking institution established in the 
United States under an Act of Congress. National banks 
can issue their individual notes (engraved and furnished by 
the government) but only upon the basis of United States 
bonds deposited with the treasurer of the United States as 
security for said notes in circulation, should any such bank 
fail in business. 

Negotiable. — That which is transferable by delivery, 
assignment, or endorsement. 

Net. — Clear of all charges and deductions. 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 13 

Net Jjoss. — Excess of losses over gains. 

Net Proceeds. — The remainder after deducting- charges 
for sales. 

Net Weight. — Weight after deducting all allowances. 

Nominal. — Existing in name only. 

Obligation. — Indebtedness; a bond with a consideration 
annexed, and a penalty for non-fulfilment. 

Open Account* — An unsettled account with a firm or 
individual. 

Open Policy. — An insurance policy intended to cover all 
goods shipped by a certain person (or received) within a cer- 
tain specified time. Each separate risk is to be endorsed 
upon the policy as it arises. 

Order. — A request to pay or deliver certain money or 
goods. 

Order Book. — The book in which requests for goods are 
entered. 

Overdraw. — To draw for a sum greater than one's credit 
balance. 

Par. — Equal in value; that is, the market value is equal 
to the face or nominal value without premium or discount. 

Partnership. — Company; firm: imion of two or more 
in business. 

Par Talue. — The nominal value ; usually the printed or 
written value of any commercial paper. 

Pass Book.-^A book in which a trader enters articles sold 
on credit. It is carried by the purchaser and presented by 
him for record when the purchases are made. 

Payee. — Person to whom money is paid. 

Payer. — Person who pays. 

Per. — A Latin preposition meaning through or by. Used 



14 DOL'BLE-E.XTRV BOOKKEEPING. §'^7 

in self-explaining compounds; as, per bushel, per day, pel 
gross, etc. 

Per Anniim. — By the year. 

Per Cent. — (Per centum.) By the hundred. 

Percentage. — A part or portion expressed in hundredths. 

Per Diem. — By the day. 

Pei'sonal Accounts. — Accounts with persons — even arti- 
ficial persons, as banks, corporations, etc. — as distinguished 
from accounts with property, etc. 

Pei'sonal Property. — All property except real estate. 

Petty Casli Book. — A memorandum book of small 
receipts and expenses. 

Postdate. — (After date.) To date after the real time of 
writing. 

Posting. — Transferring the entries from the Journal and 
other books to their proper accounts in the Ledger. 

PoAver of Attorney. — A written instrument giving an 
agent authority to act for his principal in matters requiring 
such written delegation of power; such an agent is called 
an Attorney-in-Fact. 

Preferred Stock. — Stock that is entitled to a stipulated 
dividend before any dividend can be declared on the ordi- 
nary or common stock. 

Premium. — Excess above par; sum paid for insurance. 

Proceeds. — The amount or value of anything converted 
into money. 

Promissory Xote. — A written promise to pay a certain 
sum of money at a specified time. 

Protecting a Di*aft. — Accepting or paying a draft to 
prevent its being dishonored or protested. 

Protest. — (1) A formal declaration made by a notary 
public that a note was not paid at maturity, or that a bill of 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 15 • 

exchange was not accepted when presented, or was not paid 
when due; (2) an official statement by the master of a 
vessel that the damage to ship or cargo was caused by stress 
of weather and not by negligence. 

Quotation. — The published price of stocks, merchandise, 
freight rates, rates of exchange, etc. 

Real Estate. — Land and such buildings and appurte- 
nances as pass with the land in conveyance of sale. 

Receiver. — A person appointed to take charge of the 
affairs of a corporation on its dissolution, and to distribute 
its property according to law. 

Remittance. — Funds sent from one place to another. 

Renevs^al. — (Of a note. ) Giving a new note in exchange 
for a like note when due. 

Rent. — Amount paid for use of another's premises. 

Resources. — Money, property, or that which can be con- 
verted into property ; as, claims against other people either 
on written or verbal promises. 

Savings Bank. — Bank of deposit where interest is allowed 
on amounts deposited. 

Schedule. — A list or inventory of goods or prices. 

Shipment. — The putting of goods on board a vessel. In 
double entry, the title of an account with goods sent away 
to be sold on commission. 

Sight Draft. — A draft payable at sight; that is, on pres- 
entation to the drawee. 

Statement.— A list of resources and liabilities; a report 
of an agent's transactions sent to his principal. 

Stockholder. — One who owns shares in a joint-stock com- 
pany or corporation. 

Stocks.— Shares in joint-stock companies and corporations; 
Government municipal bonds. 

Storage. — Charges for the use of a warehouse. 



10 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



27 



Suspense Account. — An account employed to contain 
balances of personal accounts that may be considered 
doubtful. 

Terms. — The conditions of a sale as to time and kind of 
payment. 

Time Di*aft. — A draft maturing at a future specified time. 

Trade Discount. — A discount or series of discounts from 
list prices, made to dealers, or because of a change in prices. 

Value Received. — A phrase of formality used in notes to 
indicate that a consideration has been given. 

Toucher. — Such papers or documents as prove the truth 
of accounts; thus, a receipt is a voucher for the payment of 
money. 

AVay Bill. — A document containing a list of goods sent 
by railroad. 

'NVliolesale. — (To sell whole.) To sell goods in large quan- 
tities, usually in unbroken packages. 



COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIOXS. 

7. The following tables of commercial abbreviations 
should be carefully studied. The use of these abbreviations 
is common and must be understood. 



Al First Class. 

A. or ans Answer. 

acct . .Account. 

acct. cur. . . Account Cur- 
rent. 

acct. sales. .Account Sales. 
A. D. . . In the year of our 

Lord. 

ad Advertisement. 

Agt Agent. 

Ala. . , Alabama. 

A. M Before noon; 

Master of Arts ; In the 

year of the world. 
Am. or Amer. . . American; 

America. 

amt Amount. 

Apr April. 

art Article. 

Arit Arizona. 



Ark Arkansas. 

ass'd or as'd . . . Assorted. 

ass'md Assumed. 

Ass't Assistant. 

Atty Attorney. 

Aug August. 

bal Balance. 

bbl Barrel. 

B. B. ... Bill Book; Bank 
Book. 

bdls Bundles. 

b. of e. . . Bill of Exchange. 

bgs Bags. 

bk Bank or Book. 

bkts Baskets. 

b. of 1 Bill of Lading. 

bis Bales. 

bot Bought. 

B. Pay, . . . Bills Payable. 



bro't Brought. 

b. rec. . . Bills Receivable. 

b. ren'd . . .Bill Rendered. 

bu. or bush Bushel. 

bxs Boxes. 

Cal. California; Calendar. 
C. B Cash Book. 

c. or cts Cents. 

chgs. Charges. 

chts Chests. 

ck. , Check. 

cks Casks or Checks. 

Co. . .Companv; County. 
C. O. D. . .Cash (or Collect) 

on Delivery. 

Coil Collector. 

Com. . Commission ; Com- 
merce ; Committee. 

Com'l Commercial 



27 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



1? 



Conn, or Ct. Connecticut. 

Cons'd Consigned. 

Cons't .... Consignment. 
Cr. ... Credit; Creditor. 

C. S. B. Commission Sales 

Book. 

ctg Cartage. 

cwt. . . . Hundredweight. 

D. B Day Book. 

Dec December. 

Dep. . . Deposit; Deputy. 

Del Delaware. 

Dep't. Department ; Depo- 
nent. 

Deg. . . . o Degree. 

df t. . . Draft ; Defendant. 

disc't Discount. 

div Dividend. 

do. or ditto . . The same. 

Dr Debtor; Doctor. 

ds. . Days. 

Ea. or ea Each. 

Ed. ... .Editor ; Edition. 

E. E. . . Errors Excepted. 
E. & O. E. . . . Errors and 

Omissions Excepted. 

e. g For example. 

End Endorse. 

Ent Entry. 

Ent'd Entered. 

etc. or &c. . . And others; 

And so forth, 
et. al. ..... . And others. 

Exch Exchange. 

ex Express. 

exp. . .Export; Exporter; 

Expense. 

Feb February. 

fig'd Figured. 

Fla Florida. 

f o. b. ... Free on Board. 

fo'd or f 'd Forward. 

Fri Friday. 

Frt Freight. 

Ft Fort. 

ft. . . Foot; Feet. 

Ga Georgia. 

gal Gallon. 

G. O General Order. 

gr. or gro Gross. 

hdkf Handkerchief. 

hhd Hogshead. 

la Iowa. 

I. B Invoice Book. 

id The same. 

i. e That is. 

Ill Illinois. 

in Inch ; Inches. 



incor Incorporated. 

Ind Indiana ; India ; 

Indian ; Index. 

ind Indorse. 

Ind. T. . Indian Territory. 

Ins Insurance. 

inst Instant. (This 

month.) 

int Interest. 

inv. Invoice. 

inv't Inventory. 

I. O. U. . . I owe you. An 
acknowledgment of in- 
debtedness. 

J Justice ; Judge. 

J. or jour Journal. 

Jan January. 

J. D. B Journal Day 

Book. 

J. F Journal Folio. 

J. P. . Justice of the Peace, 
Journal Page. 

Ju June. 

Jul July. 

Kan Kansas. 

Ky Kentuck}^. 

L. . Ledger ; Latin ; Fifty. 

lb Pound. 

La Louisiana. 

lab Labor. 

L. B Letter Book. 

L. F. Ledger Folio. 

L. P Ledger Page. 

L. T Ledger Title. 

Man Manitoba. 

man'f. , . . Manufacture ; 
Manufactory. 

Mar Maritime. 

Mch „ , . . March. 

Mass. .... Massachusetts. 

M. C. Member of Congress. 

Md Maryland. 

mdse Merchandise. 

Me Maine. 

Mem Memorandum. 

Messrs. or MM. . . Gentle- 
men ; Sirs. 

Mem. B. . . Memorandum 
Book. 

Mex Mexico. 

mfd Manufactured. 

mfg Manufacturing. 

Mfst Manifest. 

mfr Manufacturer. 

Mich.. Michigan. 

Minn Minnesota. 

Miss Mississippi. 

Mme Madam. 

Mmes Mesdames. 



Mo Missouri. 

Mo. or mo Month. 

Mols Molasses. 

Mon Monday. 

Mont Montana. 

Mr. . . . Master or Mister. 
Mrs. . . Mistress or Miosis. 

Mtg Mortgage. 

MS Manuscript. 

Mut Mutual. 

N. A New Accoiint ; 

North America. 

Nat. or Nat'l . . . National. 
N. B. . . Take Notice ; New 
Brunswick. 

N. C. . . . North Carolina ; 
Net Capital. 

N. E New England. 

Neb Nebraska. 

Nev Nevada. 

N. F Newfoundland. 

N. H. . . New Hampshire. 

N. J New Jersey. 

N.L. Net Loss. 

N. Mex New Mexico. 

No Number. 

Nov November. 

N. P Notary Public; 

Net Proceeds. 

N. Y New York. 

O Ohio ; old. 

O. A Old Account. 

O. B Order Book. 

Oct October. 

O. K. . . . All correct. (Oil 
korrect.) 

O. LB... Outward Invoice 
Book. 

Ont Ontario. 

Ore Oregon. 

p Page. 

pp Pages. 

Pa. or Penn Pennsyl- 
vania. 

pay't orpm't. . .Payment. 

P. B Pass Book. 

P. C. B Petty Cash 

Book. 

pee. or pc Piece. 

pes. or ps. Pieces. 

pd Paid. 

per An By the year. 

pk Peck. 

pkg Package. 

P. & L. . . Profit and Loss. 

P. M Postmaster; 

After noon. 

P. N Postal Note. 

P. O. D. . Pay on Delivery. 



I 



18 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPIXG. 



p. O. O . Post-Office Order. 

pop Population. 

Prem Premium. 

Pro Proceeds. 

prop'r Proprietor. 

prox Next month. 

P. S Postscript. 

pub Publisher. 

Qt. or qr. Quarter ; Quire. 
Qt. or qt. Quart ; Quantity. 
Rec. . . Recorder ; Recipe. 

rec'd Received. 

ret'd Returned. 

R.I Rhode Island. 

Reg- Register. 

R. R Railroad. 

Ry Railway. 

Sat Saturday. 

S. B Sales Book. 

S. C South Carolina; 

Small Capitals. 

S. E Single Entry ; 

Southeast, 
sec. . . Section ; Secretary. 
Sep. or Sept. . September. 



Shipt Shipment. 

Shs Shares. 

Sig- Signature. 

S. S Steamship. 

St. dft Sight Draft. 

Stor Storage. 

Sun. or Sund. , . Sundaj- ; 

Sundries. 
Supt. . . . Superintendent. 

sq Square. 

T. B.. . .Time Book ; Trial 

Balance. 

Tenn Tennessee. 

Ter Territory. 

Thurs Thursday. 

Tex Texas. 

Treas Treasurer. 

trans Transaction; 

Translation. 
Tu. or Tues. . . . Tuesday, 
ult. or ulto. . Last Month. 

U. S United States. 

U. S. A. . United States of 

America ; U. S. Army. 
U. S. M. . . . United States 

Mail. 



U. S. X. . . . United States 
Navy. 

Va Virginia. 

via By way of. 

Vice Pres. Vice President. 

Viz. or viz Namely ; 

To wit. 

vol Volume. 

vs Against. 

Vt Vermont. 

Wash. Washington. 

W. B Way Bill. 

Wed Wednesday, 

Wk Week. 

Wis Wisconsin. 

Wt. or wt Weight. 

W. Va. . . . West Virginia. 

Wy W\-oming. 

X Extra ; Ten. 

XL Excel ; Forty. 

XX, XXX . Double Extra, 
etc. 

Xmas Christmas. 

y. or yr Year. 

Yd. or vds vards. 



SIGNS AND CHARACTERS. 

8. The following signs and characters are in daily use 
and should be thoroughly learned. 

Dollars. 

Means "Number" if writ- 
ten before a figure, as 
=^=40; but "Pounds" if 
written after, as 40^. 

Check-mark; also radical 
sign. 

(Ditto.) The same as above. 

Degrees. 

Primes; Minutes; Feet. 

Seconds ; Inches ; also used 
for ditto marks. 

One and one-fourth. 

One and one-half. 

One and three-fourths. 

(Plus.) Addition. 

(Minus.) Subtraction, 

(By or times. ) Multiplica« 
t'ion. 

(Divided by.) Division. 

(Equality.) Equals. 



@ 


To or at. 


$ 


afc 


Account. 


= 


Vi 


Bill of Lading. 




^/r 


Bill Rendered. 




Vs 


Bill of Sale. 


\' 


< 


Cents. 


f«' 


Care of. 


" 


^/D 


Davs after Date. 





Vs 


Days after Sight. 


/ 


^/b 


Free on Board. 




'/a 


Joint Account. 


1' 


Vc 


Letter of Credit. 


1^ 


ViT 


Letters of Marque. 


V 


£ 


Pounds Sterling. 


+ 


^ 


On Account of Custom. 


- 


^ 


Out of Courtesv. 


X 


i 


Per Cent. 


-r- 


.? 


Per. 


= 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



19 



expi.a]sratio]s^s cokcerin^ixg busixess traks- 

actio:n^s. 

9. Deposit Slips. — A deposit slip, or deposit ticket, is a 
paper specially prepared and furnished by the banks, so that 
each depositor may fill out and present, Avith his Pass Book, 
an itemized statement of the different items for deposit, such 
as gold, silver, checks, notes, drafts, etc. If the banker 
finds the items for deposit correct in all respects, he will 
place the sum of the deposit to your credit in your Pass Book 
and on the other books of the bank. Whenever you wish to 
make a deposit of currency (gold, silver, or paper money) in 
the bank, count up the money to be deposited and fill out the 
deposit slip as shown in the following form : 

DEPOSITED BY 



The International 
Correspondence Schools Bank. 



Scranton, Pa. 



, JJp^^^y. /^ 1 89^, 



PLEASE LIST EACH CHECK SEPARATELY. 


R'llk 


DOLLARS. 


CENTS. 


Cnlri 






SihiP.r 






ChP.rk^ 











































If you wish to deposit only checks, fill out the deposit slip 
as on the next page. If you wish to deposit both currency 
and checks, fill out the slip with both in their proper places 
and add them together. 



'-iO 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



§27 



DEPOSITED BY 



...IN... 

The International 
Correspondence Schools Bank. 

, ^fiz^<t-7y. /,. 189L 



Scranton, Pa. 



PLEASE LIST EACH CHECK SEPARATELY. 


/?/"//? 


DOLLARS 


CENTS 


CnJH 






Sili}f!r 






r.hprk^ 






■^./?. "^J/J 


/^-^ 


jT^ 


&1^ C^..^_ 


^ X 


^a 


3^i'^^^:4..L-..-^^ 


xs- 


y 


/ 


^ / ^ :Z 


^^ 




/ 











10. Signature Slip. — AVhen you take your money and 
deposit slip to the bank to make your first deposit, the 
banker ^vill ask you to sign a signature book or slip. This 
book or slip is used by the bank to keep a record of the 
address and signature of each of its depositors. 

Each depositor is required to sign the signature book 
when he opens his account with the bank. On the slip he 
writes his full name, his address, and his signature as he 
habitually writes it. The style of signature should never be 
changed, and all business papers should be signed exactly 

Signature Book of The International Correspondence Schools Bank. 



Surname. 


Given Naj«e. 


Signature. 


address. 




Date. 


S^;Ui^. 


X^ 


^ ^./^.^^:U/^. 


^:2-^^^^Z^i.i.^J>A- 





27 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



21 



as the signature is written in the signature book, or on the 
signature slip. The preceding illustrates a common form 
of signature slip and shows how it is filled out by the 
depositor. 

11. Pass Book. — On opening an account with a bank, 
the depositor is given a Pass Book. This should always be 
taken to the bank when a deposit is made, when papers are 
left for collection, when papers are discounted and the 
proceeds to be placed to the credit of the depositor. The 
Pass Book should be balanced at least once a month, it being 
left at the bank for that purpose. After you have made 
your deposit, and the bank has given you a Pass Book with 
the amount of your deposit entered to your credit, you will 
then receive a Check-Book. 

13. Banking Ijedger. — This is the book in which you 
keep your account with the bank. In it you enter all 
deposits and withdrawals. The balance shown by this book 
Dr. FIRST NATIONAL BANK. IN ACCOUNT WITH Cr, 



^./3.J^.U^. 






T/r /S^i^., 





¥0 


A- 




^/f2^ 


^ 


^:/fJ^ 


^o 










/fJ-(P 



Ji 



^//A 



should exactly agree with the balance in the Pass Book and 
with that shown by the Cash account, or Cash Book. In 
making a deposit, enter it on the debit side of the Banking 
Ledger, specifying the different items deposited exactly the 
same as you have arranged them on the deposit slip; that is, 
enter on the debit side of the Banking Ledger an exact 
copy of the deposit slip. Enter on the credit side, each 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



§-^: 



check yon pay out, entering it at the time of drawing it, 
giving its date and number. 

At such times as you desire to compare your Cash account 
with the Banking Ledger, add up the debit side of the 
Banking Ledger, which should contain all the deposits; then 
add. up the credit side, which should contain all the checks 
drawn. If the debit side is the larger, the difference between 
it and the credit side will be the balance on deposit. If all 
your money is on deposit, this balance should be the same as 
the balance of the Cash account ; if all your money is not on 
deposit, add the amount on hand to the Banking-Ledger 
balance, and this sum should agree with the balance shown 
by the Cash account, or Cash Book. 

Under proper management the credit side of the Banking 
Ledger will not be the larger ; but in case it is, the differ- 
ence between it and the debit side will be the amount that 
you have overdrawn your bank account. 

"When you desire to close and rule up this book, first find 
its balance as above and prove it correct by making it agree 
with the balance of the Cash account ; these balances must 
agree though the footings may or may not. If the debit side 
of the Banking Ledger is larger than the credit side, enter 
the difference between them, in red ink, on the credit side, 
underneath the last check entered, and rule up the account 
as shown in the accompanying illustration. 

H. B. WELLS, IX ACCOUNT WITH FIRST NATIONAL BANK 



Date 



/ffC. 



Deposit Total Date. 
Items. Deposit. 



Xo. Checks. 



/ffC 






^^|f.,^^,y,^^|-ff-T-t^^ 



/^«^ 






C/. xa 



^m 



H 



<ct 



^ 



/^«^. 






J-0 

97 






^ 



§27 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



23 












'^ 


N 

1 






1 


1 



13. Checks.— A Check- Book 
is a book of printed blank checks 
usually furnished free of charge 
by the bank with which you do 
business. These blanks, called 
checks, are so worded and printed 
that, when they are properly 
filled out, they become orders for 
money on the bank named there- 
in, payable on demand without 
interest to the person named 
therein, or to his order, or to the 
bearer. 

When it is desired to draw 
money from the bank, one of these 
checks is filled out with the date, 
the name of the person to whom 
you wish the money paid, and the 
amount to be paid, the check 
being signed exactly as you 
signed the signature slip. A full 
description is then made of the 
check on the clieck-stub, and 
its amount deducted from tha 
sum on deposit in the bank ; the 
check is then torn off for use. 
The accompanying form shows 
a check and stub as generally 
filled out. The usual way of 
endorsing checks for deposit is 
for the person depositing the 
check to write his signature on 
the back of the check. 

14. Receipts. — A receipt is 
a written acknowledgment of 
having received a specified value, 
with the date, source of receipt, 



24 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



§27 



Ew«otK«<«<4»«ai««««<4:<«<>«<>»*tt«a<^ 




•Vd 'NOiNV^DS 

• ■•JO ••• 
100HDS 3DN3aNOdS3yyOD 3H1 




signature of the party ^vho re- 
ceived the value, and such other 
particulars as may be necessary 
to make it plain and unquestion- 
able. A receipt or voucher of 
some description should be taken 
whenever you make a payment 
for anything. A high value 
should be placed on all vouchers 
of this description, as they save 
disputes, money, and trouble, and 
frequently a lawsuit. Always 
make out a receipt so that its 
meaning will be clearly under- 
stood. 

15. Invoices. — An invoice, 
or bill, is an itemized statement 
of the names, quantities, and 
prices of articles sold by one 
person to another, with the date 
of sale, terms, discount allowed, 
if any, etc. It should be made 
out in a clear, comprehensive 
manner, itemizing each article so 
that any person of ordinary in- 
telligence could check up the 
bill and tell in detail exactly 
what articles it contained. Care 
should be taken with the writing 
and figures to have them plain, 
so no mistakes will occur in 
reading them. The character 
" @ '• and the " $ " need not be 
used in making out bills ; they 
are unnecessary to a clear under- 
standing of thebillandfrequently 
take up valuable space and time. 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. • 25 

The use of the different columns and rulings on an ordinary 
billhead are fully illustrated in the form given on the following 
page, and are self-explanatory. All invoices, statements, etc., 
when paid, should be receipted in a small, neat style of writing 
on the next or second line below the last item, and not across 
the face of the bill, unless absolutely necessary on account of 
lack of space. In all cases of part payment, only the amount 
paid should be entered on the bill or statement. The usual 
form used in receipting for payment of a bill, statement, 
note, etc. is as follows : 

January 4th, 1896. 

PAID. 

H. B. Wells. 

See illustration on first bill sold, in the Model Set, also on 
invoice herewith. 

SPECIMEN INVOICE. 



New York y^?^<yzy J2- . J 8Q/^.. 

Bought of J. A. CLARK, 

WHOLESALE AND RETAIL GROCER. 

TERMS — '^g-cZ.-^^-'^zX' ALL CLAIMS FOR SHORTAOe OR DAMAGE MUST BE MADRON RECEIPT OF GOODS. 









^7 



It is also well to specify how paid ; that is, if paid by check, 
state so and give the number of the check ; if by note, give 
the date, time to run, and whether with or without interest ; 
if with interest, the rate per cent. ; and if by draft, state on 
whom it is drawn, and whether it is a sight or time draft. 
Other forms of payment can be explained according to the 
manner made. 



26 DOUBLE-EXTRV BOOKKEEPING. §-27 

16. Bills. — A bill and an invoice are really the same, 
but for convenience we shall use the term invoice to desig- 
nate bills of goods bought, and the term bill to designate 
the invoices of goods sold. For illustration of a bill, see 
accompanpng specimen. 

SPECIMEN BILL. 

/ 



Scranfon. Pfl.._^ "5?^- 



Af^ ^N 5l^yy. 



Bought of H. B. WELLS, 



V^HOLfSAll FLOtR. 



i I 

17. Bills Payable. — Bills Payable are our written obli- 
gations to pay at some future time. They are usually notes, 
acceptances, due bills, etc. A proniissoinr note is an abso- 
lute promise, in writing, to pay on a certain date, or on 
demand, a specified sum of money to a person named therein, 
or to his order, or to the bearer, and is signed by the maker. 
There are also notes signed by more than one party and 
called joint notes, or joint -and-sevei'al notes. A joint 
note reads, ' ' We jointly promise to pay. " It is supposed that 
each party has been equally benefited ; hence, only one-half 
of the note can be collected of each maker. A joint-and- 
several note reads, "We jointly and severally promise to 
pay." In this form of a note the makers are imited in the 
obligation, and the payee can collect from all the makers 
together, or the entire face of the note from any one of 
them, if he is worth that amount. The form of promissory 
note most generally used is given on the next page. The 
note itself is detached from the stub. For manner of record- 
ing notes in the Bill Book, see illustration under Bill Book. 



§27 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



27 



I'******'?*****************'?******' 




* "Vd 'NOiNV^DS % 

X •••dO' •• ♦ 

I lOOHOS 30N13aNOdS3>l>JOD 3HJ. ♦ 







^ 


^ 




vs 

^ 






A 


^ 


\ 


^ 




■^ 


^ 






' 




J 


^ 


J 




1 




s 

1 




■5 




i 

i 



18. Bill Book.— The Bill 

Book is a double-faced mem- 
orandum book in which is kept 
a record of all Bills Payable and 
Bills Receivable connected with 
the business. These are princi- 
pally notes, time drafts, and 
acceptances, but any written 
promise or request to pay, such 
as due bills and orders, may, if 
desired, be treated as Bills Pay- 
able and Bills Receivable. 

One half of the Bill Book is 
arranged for the Bills Payable 
and the other half for the Bills 
Receivable, and if correctly 
kept, the book will contain valu- 
able information concerning the 
maturity of all commercial 
papers, especially those that you 
have to pay. Only such com- 
mercial papers as are entered in 
the books of original entry, as 
Bills Payable and Bills Receiv- 
able, should be entered in this 
book, and they should be en- 
tered without fail at the time 
of receiving or issuing them. 

The Bill Book is generally kept 
as an auxiliary book, although 
there are various forms in use, 
some of which are so arranged as 
to admit of posting directly from 
them to the Ledger. As this is 
not a general custom among 
bookkeepers, the form given on 
the following page is not adapted 
to this purpose. 



S ^i 



I 



♦^ 
^ 

^ 



•XJ^I JO j 



'±KAOlKY 



^-^ 





•Idas 
•Snv 
AfnT 








































^ 


3unf 








7; 


•adv 




— 




iC 




^ 








•jBaA 










•s n 








■^ '^ 








•3KI.L 


" 11 '"' 







Q^ 




d T 



ir - 
^1 



^27 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



29 



19, Ruling Practice. — Special care should be laken in 
ruling to have the lines begin and end at the desired points. 
Avoid overloading the pen, or using it until the ink gives 
out in the middle of a line, making it necessary to retrace. 
If it should be necessary to retrace a line, do not increase its 
width by ruling a little to one side of it. Rule up, in red ink, 
to send in with your work, a page of ledger paper, exactly 
the same as the ruling below. The object in doing this 
work is to attain a high degree of proficiency in ruling. 
Use a single-pointed pen for the single lines and a double- 
pointed pen for the double lines. Do the work neatly, 
ruling all lines without retracing or patching, and give 
special attention to beginning and stopping the lines at 
the point intended. If you make a poor line in ruling, a 
blot, or otherwise soil the paper, prepare a new sheet, as 
nothing but a fair degree of perfection will be accepted. 




WHOI.ESALE FLOUR BUSIINTESS. 



MODEL SET. 
20, The Journal. — The Day Book Journal is a combi- 
nation of the old Day Book and Journal. The old Day Book 
contained a detailed statement of each and every transaction 
in the order in which they occurred. See illustration on 
following page. 



30 



LX)UBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. S 2? 



^J^^^5>^<ze-<?'2-^S''>^<f'/^^-<^ ^^^^r?-z.-^.:>2z^'^-^ /, /f^f^. 




-J _ 




i-^^^.t^/, /rfti. 



is6 2^ 



j-f/ra 



J~<y 



'(paJ rs" 



A 



P 



y— 3 \ 



\oe>J 



I 

i jra 



ys vo^jyj' 



^Jt^c^-'L^i^z^^^'T^^Cc^-^^, )^d^, J/T^^''?^z,^-i^i.^iZ^4-2f A /^f^' 



j> V 



-~J~ 







-^/^r^ 



^^ 



\^j-f/sa 



J-^ 



27 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



31 



^1, The Leclg-er. — The Ledger is a book of accounts. It 
shows the final summing up of all our business transactions, 
and the standing of all personal and miscellaneous accounts. 
The left-hand side of the Ledger is the debit side and the 
right-hand side the credit, with columns for the date, expla- 
nation, and the pages of books from which items are posted. 
See illustration below. 



YEAR. 



Name of Account. 

YEAR. 







Debit side of Le 


Ige 


page. 






= 


Credit side of 


Le 


ger pj 


ge. 


( 










-^ 


C 


... 




.... 




) 











J 




.c 




1 








.c" 




g 


















Pi 




o 




















o 


CO ' 

Pl 










s 


K 

C 


-c 








a 


'5^ 








<u 


c 


0) 


. 






a 


.2 " 


Q 








/i 




C/J 








.d 




tc 










rt 











-M 


cS 









.=: 


U-l 


c 


p, 






ji 


t4_l 


Pl 


0* 






+2 





^ 


ci 






+j 


o 


cS 


a 








-a 


0) 






pi 
o 

s 






u5 

Pl 




u 


t-i 


u 


p 


ri 




;-! 


;-■ 


U 


u 


o 




o 


o 


o 


<2 


o 




.2 


O 


O 


«s 








t4-l 


tw 




g 






t*-i 








c 


ri 


a 


13 


3 




c 


fl 


a 


P! 


d 




s 


a 


a 


S 






a 


a 


a 


a 


*i 




s 


s 


s 


:3 


io 




s 


pi 


pi 


s 


V. 






















9i 




o 


o 


o 


o 


(U 




o 


o 


o 


o 


^ 




o 


o 


O 


O 


Q 




O 


O 


o 


o 


o 





The object of the Ledger is to collect together under the 
heading of an account all the transactions which have affected 
that account, putting the debits and credits on their respect- 
ive sides, with the date on which the transaction took place, 
the page of the Journal, or other book, from which the 
entries were brought to the Ledger account, and such other 
information as is deemed necessary. Thus we are able to 
tell not only how much is due on any account, but also how 
much business, both debit and credit, we have had with any 
account. 



TRANSACTIONS. 

22. Their Use. — The following transactions will illus- 
trate the use and manner of handling all the different books 
and papers previously explained. The manner of entering 



62 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 2? 

these transactions in the different books should be carefully 
studied, as well as the form and use of each paper, for you 
will be required to work a similar but longer set from the 
transactions given in the Question Paper for this set. 

Indexing. — The indexing of a Ledger means the writing 
of the names of all the accounts that appear in the Ledger, 
in alphabetical order on the first pages of the Ledger, which 
are especially arranged for that purpose, by allotting a page 
or a number of pages to each letter of the alphabet. Small 
Ledgers are sometimes indexed by printing two or more let- 
ters on the same page, or in the same index column. All of 
the accounts that begin with A should be placed in the index 
under the letter A, and all that begin with B should be 
placed under B, and so on through the entire alphabet. Note 
the accompanying form. 

. Great care should be taken in writing the index to write the 
names very compactly, placing the initials and figures close 
to the name, thus saving as much space as possible in the 
index pages. 

In the form given, the figure o, following Bills Payable, 
shows that this account is on page 5 in the Ledger. The 
figure 6, following H. R. Barber's name, shows that his 
account is on page G in the Ledger. The figure T, following 
Brown & Warren's name, shows this account is on page 7 of 
the Ledger, etc. 

LEDGER IXDEX. 
B— H— R— 

Bills Payable, 5. Haywood, "W. E., S. Resources and 

Barber, H. R., 0. Liabilities, 11. 

Brown & Warren, T. L — S — 

Loss and Gain, 10. Smith, M. F. , 9. 
C— 

Cash, 2. M— AV— 

Merchandise, 4. Wells, H.B.,1 

E— 

Expense. 3. 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 33 

33. Price liist. — A price list, or price book, is a sheet 
or book containing, in alphabetical order, a list of the goods 
in stock, with the cost and selling price attached. The sell- 
ing price is sometimes given in net figures and sometimes 
in figures from which certain discounts are allowed. When- 
ever a change in the prices or discounts is to be made, it is 
done by the proprietor or some one authorized to do so. 





PRICE LIST. 




FLOUR 


BUSINESS. 




Kind. 




Cost. 


Selling Price. 


Rye Flour, 




3.15 


4.35 


Extra " 




3.57 


5.10 


Super. " 




3.99 


5.70 



34, Opening Entry. — An opening entry is a statement 
setting forth the condition of the proprietor's affairs on com- 
mencing business. It gives in detail the resources and 
liabilities invested in the business, the amount of the pro- 
prietor's net investment, names the kind of business to be 
carried on, where it is to be done, the amount of rent to be 
paid, if any, and how and to whom the same shall be paid. 
The value of such a statement as the above will be readily 
seen by all. Its use is absolutely necessary and it should 
never be omitted. 



TRANSACTIONS. 

25, Following each transaction is given an explanation 
of the details necessary to be attended to in actual business 
when a transaction of the same nature occurs. Study them 
carefully so" that you will be able to correctly perform the 
work called for in the Question Papers. 

January 1, 1896. 

H. B. Wells commences business and invests $2000 in 
cash. 



3i DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 27 

Make opening entry in Journal. Debit Cash and credit 
proprietor, in Journal. Fill out deposit slip; sign signature 
book or slip; enter in Banking Ledger. The banker would 
enter this in Pass Book, but as there is no banker we must 
suppose it has been done. 

1 

Pay cash for one month's rent in advance by giving O. T. 
Willis a check for S30. 

Make out check ; enter in Banking Ledger. Debit Expense 
and credit Cash, in Journal. Receive receipt. 

Buy the following invoice of Mdse. of J. A. Clark for 
cash : 

12 bbl. Rye Flour, 3.15, 
12 " Extra " 3.57, 
14 '* Super. '' 3.99. 
Make out check; enter in Banking Ledger. Debit Mdse. 
and credit Cash, in Journal. Receive receipted invoice. 

3 

Buy the following invoice of Mdse. of Brown & Warren on 
account : 

10 bbl. Super. Flour, 3.99, 

10 *' Extra " 3.57. 

Debit Mdse. and credit Brown & Warren, in Journal. 
Receive invoice. 

"k 

Sell the following bill of Mdse. to R. B. Hall for cash: 

12 bbl. Super. Flour, 5.70, 

11 " Extra " 5.10. 

Debit Cash and credit Mdse., in Journal. Give receipted 
bill, and receive check. Hold all checks until told to 
deposit them. 

G 

Sell W. E. Haywood, on account: 

10 bbl. Rye Flour, 4.35. 
Debit W. E. Haywood and credit Mdse., in Journal. Give 
bill. 



27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 35 



Buy of H. R. Barber, on*account: 

17 bbl. Rye Flour, 3.15. 
Debit Mdse. and credit H. R. Barber, in Journal. Receive 
invoice. 

8 

Sell the following bill of Mdse. to E. W. Taylor, for cash: 
5 bbl. Extra Flour, 5.10, 
4 " Rye '' 4.35. 

Debit Cash and credit Mdse., in Journal. Give receipted 
bill and receive check. 

9 

Give Brown & Warren check for $25.00 to apply on 
account. 

Make out check; enter in Banking Ledger. Debit 
Brown & Warren and credit cash, in Journal. Get receipt 
on account 

10 ■ 

Buy the following invoice of Mdse. of John Hayden for 
your note No. 1 at 10 days, without interest: (No days of 
grace used in any of our papers. ) 

12 bbl. Extra Flour, 3.57, 

1 " Rye " 3.15, 

2 " Super. " 3.99. 

Debit Mdse. and credit Bills Payable, in Journal. Make 
out note; enter in Bill Book. Receive invoice, receipted, 
for note. 

Deposit all checks. Endorse checks; make deposit slip; 
enter in Banking Ledger. 



13 



Sell the following bill of Mdse. to M. F. Smiff^ on 
account: 

3 bbl. Super. Flour, 5.70, 

2 " Rye " 4.35, 

9 " Extra " 5.10. 
Debit M. F. Smith and credit Mdse., in Journal. Give 
bill. 



30 , DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 27 



15 

Receive of W. E. Haywood, cdsh to apply on account, $25. 
Receive check. Debit cash and credit W. E. Haywood, 
in Journal. Give receipt on account. 



17 



Buy the following invoice of Mdse. of J. D. Wallace, for 
your note No. 2 at 5 days, without interest: 
3bbl. Rye Flour, 3.15, 

4 " Extra " 3.57, 

5 '' Super. *' 3.99. 

Debit Mdse. and credit Bills Payable, in Journal. Make 
out note; enter in Bill Book. Receive invoice, receipted, 
for note. 

• 18 • 

Pay Brown & Warren cash in full of account. 

Debit Brown & Warren and credit Cash, in Journal. Give 
check; enter in Banking Ledger. Get receipt in full of 
account. 

Deposit all checks. Endorse checks; make deposit slip; 
enter in Banking Ledger. 

• 20 



Pay John Hayden for 3^ our note at 10 days, dated Jan. 10, 
1896, $53.97. 

Debit Bills Payable and credit Cash, in Journal; make out 
check; enter in Banking Ledger. Mark note "paid" and 
how paid, in Bill Book. Have note properly receipted. 



21 



Sell the following bill of Mdse. to E. W. Taylor, for cash: 
5bbl. Supen Flour, 5.70, 

3 *« Extra " 5.10, 

4 " Rye " 4.35. 

Receive check. Debit Cash and credit Mdse., in Journal 
Give receipted bill. 



27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 37 

22 



Pay J. D. Wallace cash for your note at 5 days, dated Jan. 
17, 1896, $43.68. 

Debit Bills Payable and credit Cash, in Journal. Make 
out check; enter in Banking Ledger. Mark note "paid" 
and how paid, in Bill Book. Have note properly receipted. 



23 



Sell the following bill of Mdse. to F. P. Gaynor, for cash : 
5bbl. Super. Flour, 5.70, 

5 " Extra " 5.10, 

6 " Rye " 4.35. 

Debit Cash and credit Mdse., in Journal. Receive check. 
Give receipted bill. 

25 

Sell the following bill of Mdse. to W. E. Haywood, on 
account : 

3bbl. Super. Flour, 5.70, 
3 " Extra " 5.10, 

3 " Rye *' 4.35. 

Debit W. E. Haywood and credit Mdse., in Journal. Give 
bill. 

28 

Sell all Mdse. on hand to M. F. Smith, on account: 

3 bbl. Super. Flour, 5.70, 
2 " Extra " 5.10, 

4 " Rye " 4.35. 

Debit M. F. Smith and credit Mdse., in Journal. Give bill. 



29 



Receive cash of W. E. Haywood, in full of account, $63.95. 

Debit Cash and credit W. E. Haywood, in Journal. 
Receive check. Give receipt in full of account. 

Deposit all checks. Endorse checks; make deposit slip; 
enter in Banking Ledger. 



38 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. ^ 27 



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27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 39 



31 



Pay J. B. Waite, R. R. Agt., freight bills for month of 
January, $4.25. 

Debit Expense and credit Cash, in Journal. Make out 
check; enter in Banking Ledger; receive receipt. 

Pay W. L. Hill for printing stationery, 13.75. 

Debit Expense and credit Cash, in Journal. Make out 
check; enter in Banking Ledger; receive receipt. 

Now post, take Trial Balance, make out Statement, and 
close books. 

Rule date lines in Journal ; clean up books, ready to send 
in for correction. 



POSTING TROM THE JOURNAL. TO THE LEDGER. 

36, What Is Meant by It. — By this is meant the trans- 
ferring of all items of the same kind in the Journal to one 
page in the Ledger and all items of another kind to another 
page in the Ledger, and so on, until all the items of the same 
kind in the Journal have a separate account in the Ledger; 
that is, we have one page in the Ledger for all Cash items, 
another page for all Merchandise items, a-nother page for all 
the Bills- Payable items, and another page for all the items 
connected with the proprietor's account, etc. 

Carefully read, over and over, the description given in the 
last paragraph, until a good idea is had of what is meant by 
posting the items from the Journal to the Ledger. By fol- 
lowing the directions there given, no ttouble should be had 
in understanding and tracing out the posting of the items in 
the model Journal to their proper accounts in the model 
Ledger. Remember, to avoid mistakes, each step of the 
work should be performed in the precise order of this 
outline. No attempt should be made to hurry the work, but 
time enough taken to insure correctness in every case before 
making any figures. 

Observe that all the debit Cash items in the Journal must 
be posted to the debit side of the Cash account in the Ledger, 
and all the credit Cash items to the credit side. This rule 



40 



DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



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§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 41 

applies to all accounts; all debit items of any account must 
be posted to the debit side of that account, and all credit items 
of any account must be posted to the credit side of the 
account to which they belong. 

The details of posting are as follows : 

In the Ledger write the proprietor's name and the word 
Stock on the light-blue line on the top of the first page, pre- 
cisely the same as H. B. Wells' name and the word Stock are 
written at the top of page 1, in the Ledger of the model set. 

Write the word Cash on the second page of the Ledger, 
Expense on the third, and Merchandise on the fourth. Index 
these, accounts as shown by the illustration already given, 

2 H • Posting I>e"bit Items Only. — Turn to the first page 
of the Journal and post the debit items only, to the debit side 
of their respective accounts in the Ledger, working strictly 
according to the following directions : 

Post the first debit item in the Journal, which is Cash 
12000, to the debit side of the Cash account, on the second 
page of the Ledger, exactly the same as it is posted on the 
debit side of the Cash account on page 2 of the model Ledger, 
as follows: First enter the year, month, and day in the date 
column, the same as Jan. 1, 1896, is entered in the model 
account; then in the folio column, enter the Journal page 
from which the item is being posted, which is page 1 ; now 
enter the amount of the item, $2000, in the dollars' column 
exactly as shown in the model account. Now enter the 
Ledger page, 2, in the folio column of the Journal, opposite 
the word Cash and on the same line. See the first entry in 
the model Journal. 

Post the next debit item in the Journal, which is Expense 
$30, to the debit side of the Expense account on the third 
page of the Ledger, exactly as it is posted to the debit side 
of Expense account on page 3 of the model Ledger, as fol- 
lows: Enter the year, month, and day in the date column; 
then in the folio column the page of the Journal from which 
the item is posted, and the am^ount $30. Now in the folio 
column of the Journal enter the page of the Ledger on which 



4-,' DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPIXG. g 2: 



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has been posted the item, page 3, placmg the figure opposite 
and on a line with the word Expense. 

Post the next item in the Jotirnal, which is Merchandise 
$136.50, to the debit side of Merchandise account, following 
the same directions as for the two previous postings. Now 
post the next debit item, which is Merchandise 175.60. This 
completes the posting of all the debit items on the first page 
of the model Journal, and from it a good idea should be had 
of how to post debit items. 

28. Posting Credit Items Only. — It is not necessary 
to enter into the detail of posting the credit items, as they 
are posted from the Journal to the Ledger precisely the same 
as the debit items, excepting that they are entered on the 
credit side of the Ledger account. Post the credit items 
appearing on the first page of the Journal, strictly following 
the above directions, except that the items must be posted 
to the credit side of their respective accounts. See H. B. 
Wells', Cash, and Brown & Warren's accounts in the model 
Ledger, and the credit items on the first page of the model 
Journal. Any new accounts, needed in the Ledger, must be 
opened and indexed as use is found for them. After the 
credit items, on page 1 of the Journal, have been posted, 
turn to page 2 and post, first the debit items there, and then 
the corresponding credits, and so on, page after page, until 
all the entries in the Journal have been posted. 



44 



DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



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§27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 47 

When this is completed, sharpen a pencil to a fine point 
and add all the accounts in the Ledger, writing the footings 
of each column, in very small but plain figures, in the expla- 
nation column on the same line as the figures of the last item 
posted, to the side of the account added. Placing the footing 
figures here will not interfere with the posting of additional 
items, and they can be easily erased, if desired. 

When all the posting is completed, a Trial Balance is taken 
according to the directions given under that head. 



TRIAL BALA:NrCE. 

39. What It Shows.— A Trial Balance is the result of 
adding together all the debits in the Ledger in one sum, 
and all the credits in another, omitting those accounts that 
are in balance, as they have no effect on the Trial Balance. 
If the work in the Ledger is correct, the sum of the debits 
will be equal to the sum of the credits. The object of 
taking a Trial Balance is to test the correctness of the work 
in the Ledger, but a Trial Balance, alone, is not sufficient 
proof that the work in the Ledger is absolutely correct, as it 
merely shows that for every sum entered on the debit side, 
a corresponding sum has been entered on the credit side ; 
that is, a Trial Balance is simply evidence, and not proof, 'of 
the correctness of your work. For example, if an account 
was credited with an item of $100 that belonged to the credit 
of some other account, it would not throw the Ledger out of 
balance, yet both of these accounts would show wrong results 
and be incorrect. To take a Trial Balance, take a sheet of 
journal paper and write the name of every account the 
Ledger contains, including the total sum of their respective 
debits and credits, the sum of the debits in the left-hand 
or debit column of the sheet, and the credits in the right- 
hand or credit column ; at the same time write the Ledger 
page of each account in the narrow column at the left, the 
same as in the form shown for the model set. Add the debit 
and credit columns of the Trial Balance, and if they agree, 
the balance is supposed to be correct. If they do not agree, 



iS 



DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



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§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 49 

there is an error somewhere, and the work must be reviewed 
to find it. It will probably be found in the adding or post- 
ing. When a correct Trial Balance is had, copy it in the 
Journal, two or three lines from the last entry, if there is 
room on that page, but if not, enter it on the next page. 
See the Trial Balance for the model set. 

A Trial Balance is usually taken on the first of each 
month, but the books are not usually closed more than once 
a year, though some firms close them once in six months or 
oftener. 



A STATEMENT OF THE BUSINESS. 

30. Object. — After getting a Trial Balance the next 
thing to do is to make a Statement of the business, some- 
times called a Balance Sheet. The principal object of this 
statement is to ascertain the exact financial standing of the 
business, and at the same time it will be of assistance in 
closing the books. 

Before attempting to make this statement it will be abso- 
lutely necessary to thoroughly understand how to classify 
the accounts, as every account in the Ledger, excepting the 
proprietor's, must be classified in the statement either as a 
resource, a liability, a loss, or a gain. 

31. Resources. — A resource is anything belonging to 
the business which has a cash value, such as the various 
amounts due from other persons on account, merchandise on 
hand, bills receivable, cash, store and office furniture, real 
estate, chattels, stocks, etc. ; in fact, anything of value that 
belongs to the business. 

32. liabilities. — A liability is anything in the nature 
of a debt that will have to be paid at some future time; such 
as, the amounts due other persons on account, bills payable, 
etc., any debt or amount that must be paid by the business. 

33. Gains. — A gain is the profit of a business, and is 
usually found in such accounts as Merchandise, Interest and 
Discount, Commission, Real Estate, Stocks, etc. 



50 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 2T 

34. Losses. — A loss is the opposite of a gain, and is the 
natural result of a failure to gain. It is usually found in 
such accounts as Expense and ^lerchandise, Interest and 
Discount, Commission, Real Estate, Stocks, etc. 

35. Classifying Accounts. — It will be seen by the 
above that we have two kinds of accounts, those we gain or 
lose on, called IjOSS and Gain accounts, and those on which 
we do not gain or lose, called Ilesource and Liability 

accounts. "We will further classify them by calling the 
Resource and Liability accounts, non -speculative accounts, 
and the Loss and Gain accounts, speculative accounts. To 
determine whether an account goes into the Resource and 
Liability part of the statement, or into the Loss and Gain 
part, we must' first determine whether it is a speculative or 
non-speculative account. 

Rule. — Speculative accounts are all but Cash, personal^ 
and bill accounts [Bills Payable and Bills Receivable). 

When the debit side of any account in the Ledger is the 
larger, the difference is either a resource or a loss. To 
determine where in the statement such an account belongs, 
you must decide whether it is a speculative or a non-specula- 
tive account. If the account in question is the Cash account, 
a personal account, or the Bills- Receivable account, then the 
difference is a resource ; if the accoimt is any other than 
these, and the debit side is the larger, it is a loss. 

When the credit side of any accoimt in the Ledger is the 
larger, the difference is always a liability or a gain. To 
determine which it is, first decide whether the account is 
speculative or non-speculative. If the account in question 
is a personal account or the Bills-Payable account, then the 
difference between the sides is a liability ; if it is any other 
account than these, and the credit side is the larger, the dif- 
ference between the sides is a gain. 

By carefully studying the above classification of accounts 
it will readily be seen that the debit balance of every non- 
speculative account is a resource to the business, and that 
the debit balance of eveiy speculative account is a loss; that 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 51 

the credit balance of every non- speculative account is a 
liability to the business, and that the credit balance of every 
speculative account is a gain. If the sum of the resources is 
greater than the sum of the liabilities, the difference is the 
proprietor's present worth. If the sum of the liabilities is 
greater than the sum of the resources, the difference is the 
proprietor's insolvency. The difference between the present 
worth of the proprietor and his worth in the beginning 
shows his net gain or loss. That is, if he is worth less now 
than on beginning business, he has lost just that much ; if 
he is worth more now than when he began business, he has 
gained just that much. The difference between the sum of 
the gains and the sum of the losses also shows the net gain 
or loss. If the sum of the gains is the larger, that difference 
is the net gain ; if the sum of the losses is the larger, that 
difference is the net loss. 

To make out a statement of the business, arrange each 
account under its proper heading precisely as they have been 
arranged in the statement of the model set. First select all 
the accounts in the Trial Balance that show a resource and 
arrange them as the Resources of the model set are arranged. 
Select all accounts in the Trial Balance that show a liability, 
and arrange them as the Liabilities of the model set are 
arranged. Subtract the total sum of the Liabilities from the 
total sum of the Resources; the difference will be the pro- 
prietor's Present Worth, which is entered the same as H. B. 
Wells' Present Worth is given in the model set. 

Select all accounts in the Trial Balance that show a gain, 
and arrange them in the statement as they are arranged in 
the statement of the model set. Select all accounts in the 
Trial Balance that show a loss and arrange them in your 
statement as those of the model set are arranged. Subtract 
the total sum of the losses from the total sum of the gains 
and the difference will be the net gain. Next arrange the 
Stock account as H. B. Wells* is arranged in the statement 
of the model set, showing the amount invested, the amount 
of the gain, and the sum of the two, which is the proprietor's 
Present Worth on the day of closing the books of the business. 



bZ DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPIXG. § 



O" 



Make this statement out in a plain style of writing, being 
careful that the ruling is properly done and that the whole is 
neat and correct. Copy this statement in the Journal, fol- 
lowing the Trial Balance. 



CXOSrS'G A SET OF BOOKS. 

36. Why and How Done. — Closing an accoimt means 
making it balance, and closing a set of books means closing, 
or balancing, all accounts in the Ledger that show a loss or a 
gain, into the Loss and Gain account. This is a summing up 
account for the losses and gains, and receives, in a brief form, 
the net loss or gain on each speculative account. The specula- 
tive accounts are here summed up and the difference entered 
in red ink on the smaller side, from which it is carried to the 
opposite side of the proprietor's account, where it is entered 
in black ink. As we are to close only such accounts as show 
a loss or a gain, we have to deal only with the speculative 
accounts. 

To close an account, we first find the difference between 
the sums of the two sides ; then we enter this amount on the 
smaller side, in red ink, writing the date, the words Loss and 
Gain, or the letters L. & G., to indicate the same, the figures 
showing the page on which the Loss and Gain account is 
located, to which account we must carry the red-ink balance, 
and the amount of the balance. This balances, or closes, the 
account in question. We next open a Loss and Gain account 
in the Ledger, properly indexing it, and transfer to it the 
red-ink entry just made, copying it in black ink, on the oppo- 
site side of the Loss and Gain account, giving the date on 
which the account is closed, in the explanation column, the 
name of the account, its Ledger page in the folio column, 
and in the proper column the amount that was necessary to 
close, or balance, the account. 

Having closed all the speculative accounts in the Ledger 
to the Loss and Gain account, we will now close the Loss and 
Gain account to the proprietor's account. This is closed in 
the same manner as the other speculative accounts were 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 53 

closed, except that in the explanation column we write the 
name of the proprietor instead of L. & G. ; we then transfer 
this closing entry, in black ink, to the opposite side of the 
proprietor's account, giving- the date, the letters L. & G., to 
show where the entry came from, the page of the L. & G. 
account, and the amount. This completes the closing of the 
speculative accounts and the carrying of the net gain or loss 
to the proprietor's account. The next thing to do is to rule 
up all accounts in the Ledger that balance, which is done 
after the form shown in the accounts of the model set. 

On small sets of books, and sometimes on large ones, it is 
desirable to close up the non-speculative accounts as well as 
the speculative ones. To do this, we open a Resource and 
Liability account in the Ledger and properly index it; then 
we close each of the non-speculative accounts in turn, begin- 
ning with the first one after that of the proprietor's account 
(the proprietor's account closes to Resource and Liability 
account, but is reserved for the last account to close to it and 
should make the Resource and Liability account exactly 
balance), writing, on each account closed, the date, the 
letters R. & L., to indicate that the account is closed to 
Resources and Liabilities, the page of the R. & L. account, 
and the amount of the balance. 

This closing entry is made in red ink, and is immediately 
transferred in black ink, to the opposite side of the R. & L. 
account, writing on this account, at this time, the date, the 
name of the account from which we obtained the entry, the 
page of the account, and the amount. This is done with 
every account- now open on the Ledger (we having previ- 
ously ruled up all speculatives and others that were in bal- 
ance), including the proprietor's account; all these carried to 
the R. & L. account should make it exactly balance. The 
next thing to do is to rule up the accotmts in the Ledgvcr; 
this done, we bring down, in black ink, on the opposite side 
of the account from which they are entered in red, all the 
R. & L. balances, bringing them down under the date of the 
first of the next month, all closing entries having been made 
on the last day of the month on which we have been working. 



5-i DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 27 

All the R. & L. balances having been brought down, we 
next take a Trial Balance of these balances, called a Balance 
of Balances, to see if we have brought them all down and if 
our Ledger is now in balance. This taken and found to be 
correct, wc copy it in the Journal, following the statement of 
the business. 

This completes the instruction for this set; the work called 
for by the Question Paper should now be performed and sent 
in for correction. Before doing this, however, it is well to 
thoroughly review the instructions, to see whether there are 
any points that are not quite clear. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING, 

(PART 2.) 



GROCEKY BUSINESS, 



MODEI. SET. 

1. Books Used. — The books used in this set are: The 
Journal, Cash Book, and Ledger. 

The outlines of transactions in this set are not extensive, 
as they are especially designed for the purpose of introducing 
the Cash Book. We shall use the Journal and Ledger in 
this set as in the last, except that all entries in which Cash 
appears will be made in the Cash Book, instead of in the 
Journal, and that the Cash balance will be taken direct from 
the Cash Book to the Trial Balance, omitting the Cash 
account in the Ledger. 

We shall open the books of the model set, using the 
Resources and Liabilities on hand at close of last model set. 
The student will open his books, using the Resources and 
Liabilities on hand at the close of his last set. 

2. Opening Entry, Form ;No. 2. — The form of opening 
entry used in the Journal of this model set, is such as is 
usually used when the investment consists of a number of 
Resources and Liabilities, of different kinds. 

In preparing such an opening entry, it will be found very 
convenient to take the Resources and Liabilities from your 
last statement. 

Write first your opening explanation, as illustrated, then 

§28 

For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 



2 DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPIXG. § 28 

enter your Resouixes; next, the Liabilities, then your own 
name and enter your entire present worth the same as H. B. 
Wells has entered his in the opening entry of the model set. 
Carefully follow the location of each part of the opening 
entry, and observe closely that the total sum of the Liabili- 
ties plus your Stock account is equal to the sum of the 
Resources. If there is no mistake in the opening entr}% this 
will be so. 

In this set we shall continue to use the Journal for all 
entries not containing Cash, but all entries in which Cash 
appears, either received or paid out, are made in the Cash 
Book. The amount of cash on hand, appearing in this open- 
ing entry, is at once transferred to the debit or left-hand 
page of the Cash Book, where it is entered in the second col- 
umn, preceded by an explanation of where it came from. 

3, Cash. Book. — (For illustration, see model set.) — In 
this book is kept an account of all money received and paid 
out, and this is usually the only account kept with Cash. 

Whenever cash is received, the amount is entered on the 
debit, or left-hand side of the Cash Book, when paid out, on 
the credit, or right-hand side. If this book is correctly kept, 
the debit side will always be the larger, excepting in case of 
overdrawing the bank account, and the difference between 
it and the credit side will show, at any time, the exact 
amount of money on hand. 

This balance is proved by collecting all the money in your 
possession, belonging to the business, including the amount 
on deposit. This proving is called "balancing Cash," and 
must, without exception, be performed daily. By doing so, 
any omitted entry, on either side, will be brought to your 
notice before the circumstances connected with it are forgot- 
ten; this not only saves trouble, but often the bookkeeper 
his position. 

The manner of entering the Cash transactions in the Cash 
Book is very simple and readily understood by studying the 
Cash Book of the model set. First column of either side 
being for the date, the narrow column for the Ledger page of 



§ 28 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 3 

the account to be debited or credited, the wide column for the 
entry and explanation. The entry begins by writing the name 
of the account to be debited or credited, close to' the narrow 
column, and it is followed on the same line by the explanation. 

Should the explanation require more than what is left of 
the line on which the entry appears, use as many more as 
necessary, beginning the line about an inch to the right of 
the beginning of the entry. The first column is for the 
amounts of the entries, the second for the footing of the first, 
and on the debit side to enter in the balance on hand at the 
beginning of the month, and on the credit side for red-ink 
balance to close the book. 

To close the Cash Book, add the amounts in the first col- 
umn and extend them into the second, and subtract the credit 
footing from the debit. The debit footing is the sum of the 
cash received during the month plus the amount on hand at the 
beginning; the difference between the footings is the amount 
on hand. Prove this as previously explained, then under- 
neath the credit footing write, in red ink, the balance; rule, 
as in the model set, and bring the balance down on the debit 
side, in black ink, to begin next month with. Whenever the 
Cash Book is balanced, always balance the Banking Ledger. 
(See illustration in the last set.) 

This Cash Balance goes direct into the Trial Balance, with- 
out posting to the Ledger. It is not necessary to balance 
the Cash Book every time you balance your Cash, nor even 
at the bottom of each page ; simply carry your page footings 
forward and balance at the end of the month. Some persons 
prefer to have all accounts appearing in the Trial Balance to 
come from the Ledger. In a case like this, the balance of 
Cash is brought down on the Cash account in the Ledger as 
in the last set, and the total of all cash received during the 
month, as shown by Cash Book (not including that on hand 
at the beginning), is posted under this balance, and the total 
of all cash paid out is posted to the credit side. The balance 
of the Cash account in the Ledger will then be the same as 
that shown by the Cash Book. 

As we shall use the first method, that is, take the Cash 



4 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 28 

Balance direct to the Trial Balance from the Cash Book, we 
simply make a red-ink " balancings entry," on the credit side 
of the Cash account in the Ledger, and rule this account up, 
thus canceling the Cash account, and leaving our account in 
the Cash Book, the only one we have with Cash. 

The great advantage in the use of the Cash Book is in 
having all your receipts and expenditures of cash in such a 
form as to be readily accessible w^hen it is desired to look up 
the details of any cash transaction. There is also a great 
saving of labor in not having the different cash items to post. 
There is still a further saving in the labor of posting and 
entering, where we use special columns for Mdse., etc., the 
use of which will be explained further in the work. 

4. Posting From Casli Book to DLeclger. — In posting 
from the Cash Book to the Ledger, it must be remembered 
that, if an entry made on the left-hand page of the Cash 
Book debits Cash, it must credit the account named in the 
entry; and, if an entry made on the right-hand of the Cash 
Book credits Cash, it must debit the account named in the 
entry. Therefore, all items found on the debit side of the 
Cash Book must be posted to the credit side of their respect- 
ive accounts in the Ledger, and all items found on the credit 
side of the Cash Book must be posted to the debit side of 
their respective accounts in the Ledger. When special col- 
umns are used in the Cash Book, their footings are posted to 
the proper side of their respective accounts in the Ledger 
the same as, but instead of, the separate items. The foot- 
ings of the Cash Book, showing the total amount of cash 
received and paid out during the month, may or may not be 
posted to the Cash account, as previously explained. If not 
posted, their difference, which show^s the balance of the cash 
on hand, is taken direct into the Trial Balance from the 
Cash Book. But if posted, the balance of the Cash account 
in the Ledger is taken into the Trial Balance. This balance 
is, however, exactly the same as that of the Cash Book, so 
w^hichever way is adopted the Trial-Balance figures for this 
account are the same. 



§ 28 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



5, Transactions. — The following transactions are entered 
in the Journal and Cash Book of the model set. The student 
should carefully study them and the manner of entering and 
posting them to the Ledger. After entering the transactions 
we balance the Cash Book and Banking Ledger, rule them 
up, also the Journal. No illustration is given, in this set, of 
the Banking Ledger, or of any other papers previously 
explained, but you must keep a Banking Ledger throughout 
the work. After all entries, both in the Journal and Cash 
Book, have been posted to the Ledger, we proceed to take a 
Trial Balance, beginning by entering on it the Cash balance 
as shown by the Cash Book, and then proceeding as in the 
last set. After getting a Trial Balance, we make out a 
Statement of the business, the same as in the last set, then 
close and rule up the Ledger, bringing down the balances as 
before, and taking a Balance of Balances. 

6. Statements of Account. — It is customary for busi- 
ness houses, on the first of each month, to send their cus- 
tomers a statement of account. This is simply a statement 
showing the debits, or debits and credits, of the account of 
the person to whom it is sent. The following form of state- 
ment is commonly used, the first half being used alone, if 
there are only debits on the account, and the full form if 
there are both debits and credits: 



STATEMENT OF ACCOUNT. 

STATEMENT. 

Scranlon. Pa.. yW-iiAy: /..ISgd. 



NU 



WHOLESALE FLOUR. 

// 



TO H. B. WELLS, Dr. 

422 MAIN STREET. 



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30UBLE- 


ENTRY BOOK 

PRICK LI<T. 


KEEPING. 


§28 


Kinds. 


Cost Price. 


Selling Price. 




Salt, 


8 .90 


$ 1.25 




Pork, 


9.00 


10.00 




Apples, 


2.10 


2.50 




Barley, 


.00 


.75 




Flour, 


5.00 


0.00 




Beef, 


0.20 


0.95 




Fish, 


1-2. -25 


12.75 




Beans, 


.90 


1.10 





TR-\XSACTIOXS. 

February 1, 1S90. 
H. B. "Wells ■ commences business with the Resources and 
Liabilities of the last set. 

1 

Pav O. T. Willis one month's rent, $.30. 



Buy of Brown Sc Warren, on account, the following invoice 
of Mdse. : 

lObbl. Salt, .90, 

10 " Pork, 9. GO, 

To " Apples, 2.10, 

200 bu. Barley, .00. 

4 

Sell to W^ E. Haywood, on account, 

2 bbl. Salt, 1.25, 

1 " Pork, 10.00, 

1 " Apples, 2.50, 

25 bu. Barlev, .75. 



Buy for cash of J. A. Clark, 

10 bbl. Flour, 
15 " Beef, 
10 '' Fish, 
80 bu. Beans. 

Get prices from the price list. 



28 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

6 

Sell for cash to R. B. Hall, 

50 bu. Barley, 
5 bbl. Beef, 
2 " Fish. 



Sell to E. W. Taylor, for cash, 

5 bbl. Flour, 
3 " Pork. 

8 

Buy of John Hayden, on your note of 5 days, 
10 bbl. Salt, 
10 " Pork. 



10 



Pay cash for repairs on door lock, 11.40. 

11 

Receive cash of W. E. Haywood, 125. 

12 

Sell M. F. Smith, on account, 

10 bbl. Salt, 
5 " Pork, 
10 " Apples. 

13 

Pay John Hayden, note dated Feb. 8, 1896, 1105. 

14 

Receive cash of M. F. Smith, on account, $150. 

15 

Pay Brown & Warren cash, on account, $250. 

17 

Sell E. W. Taylor, for cash, 

8 bbl. Fish, 
40 bu. Beans. 

18 

Paid for stamps, 75, $1.50. 

19 



Sell for cash to E. W. Taylor, 

5 bbl. Flour, 
5 " Beef. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



^28 



Receive cash of W. E. Haywood, in full of account, $9.35. 

-23 

Sell to R. B. Hall, for cash, 

40 bu. Beans, 
8 bbl. Salt. 

25 

Pay W. L. Hill cash for printing, 83.75. 



Sell W. E. Haywood, on account, 

75 bu. Barley, 
25 bbl. Apples. 



Sell to R. 


B. 


Hall, 


4^ 

for cash, 

obbl. 
11 " 

2S 


Beef, 
Pork. 



Sell to E. VC. Taylor, for cash, 

39 bbl. Apples, 
50 bu. Barley. 



CASH BOOK. 



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DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



B— 

Bills Payable, 5. 

Barber, H. R., 6. 

Brown & Warren, 7. 
C— 

Cash, 2. 
E— 

Expense, 3. 
H— 

Haywood, W. E., 8, 

L— 

Loss and Gain, 9. 



LEDGER IXDEX. 

M— 

Merchandise, 4. 
R— 

Resources and Liabilities, 11. 
S— 

Smith, M. P., 9. 
W— 

Wells, H. B., 1. 



CASH BOOK. 



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§28 



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DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

(PART 3.) 



FUIi:N^ITUPtE BUSI^^ESS. 



MODEL SET. 

1. Books Used. — The books used in this set are : The 
Sales Book, Cash Book, Journal, and Ledger. 

This set is designed to illustrate the keeping of a Sales 
Book, a Cash Book with special columns for merchandise 
bought and sold for cash, in connection with a Journal ; post- 
ing from all these books to the Ledger. 

The Sales Book is used for recording all merchandise sales 
on account, and by some business houses for sales for notes, 
drafts, etc. This book is in more general use by large estab- 
lishments than by small, the smaller business houses finding 
it equally as convenient to enter their sales in the Journal. 
Its use in all cases is a matter of choice and convenience and 
not of necessity. 

The principal advantage found in iising the Sales Book is 
the labor saved in posting — the debit items being posted 
direct to their respective accounts, while the total sales are 
carried forward until the end of the week, or month, and then 
posted direct to the credit of Merchandise. The manner 

8 '>0 

For notice of the copyright, sec page ininiodi.-il (>lv tOllowiiii;- the title page. 



POUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. 




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29 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 3 

of making" the entries in this book will be readily under- 
stood from an examination of the entries in the model set 
herewith. 

2, Special Columns in the Cash. Book. — In this set we 
shall use the second money column on each page for mer- 
chandise, that on the left-hand page for merchandise sold, 
and that on the right-hand page for merchandise bought, the 
footings only of these columns being posted to the debit or 
credit of Merchandise as the case may be — the first money 
column on each page being used for the amounts of all cash 
transactions, excepting those for merchandise. For form of 
entering and closing, see book for model set herewith. 

The advantage derived from the use of these columns, is 
the saving in posting, it being much less labor to post the 
total amount of merchandise bought or sold for cash, during 
the entire month, than to post each item separately to the 
debit or credit of Merchandise. 

3, Journal. — The Journal is used in this set, in combina- 
tion with the other books, for all transactions that do not 
properly go into the Sales Book or the Cash Book. The 
Sales Book takes all entries for sales of merchandise on 
account, the Cash Book all entries in which cash appears, the 
Journal all entries except these. 

4. Ledger. — The Ledger is used in connection with the 
other books of this set the same as heretofore, the items 
entered in all the other books being posted from them to it; 
the posting from the Journal being done exactly the same as 
in the previous sets, and that from the Sales Book and Cash 
Book, as described under those heads and illustrated in the 
books herewith. 

5. Joint ^ote. — A joint note is a note signed by two or 
more parties and reading, "We jointly promise to pay." It 
is supposed that each party to the note has been equally 
benefited, therefore, only his proportionate share can be 
collected from each. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



§•^9 



6. Certificate of Deposit. — A certificate of deposit is a 
written acknowledgment of a bank that it has received from 
the person named a sum of money as a deposit, subject to 
withdrawal on demand and on surrender of the certificate. 

Persons holding certificates of deposit are not allowed to 
draw a check for the amount of it, or for any part of the 
amount. It is generally required that the whole sum be 
drawn out in one amount, when the certificate is presented ; 
some banks, however, are adopting the custom of allowing 
holders of certificates of deposit to make withdrawals on 
them, by endorsing the same on the back. 

7. Certifiecl Check. — A certified check is a common 
check that has been certified by the cashier of the bank on 
which it is drawn ; that is, he has written or stamped across 




Pay to the order n f ,^<2? "^^JJ^y. t .^/^ \ 



-JL^DoIlars^ 






its face, usually with red ink, the word certified^ the date, 
and his signature. 

The certifying of a check is the same as accepting a draft, 
and makes the bank responsible for its payment, and not the 
drawer. 

8. Bills Receivable. — Notes, accepted time drafts, and 
due bills, in our favor, come under this head, while our 
notes, acceptances, and due bills are to us Bills Payable. 

9. Drafts. — A draft is a written order, or request, drawn 
by one person on another, directing the payment of money 
on account of the person drawing the draft, to the party 
named in the draft, or to his order. 



§29 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 




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6 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 29 

10. Sight Draft. — A sight draft is a draft drawn by one 
person on another, and payable on presentation, or at sight. 
They are treated as cash by those receiving them. 

11. A Principal-ancl-Surety Note. — On a note of this 
kind, the payee is obliged to collect it of the principal, if 
possible, but if absolutely unable to do so, he will be allowed 
to collect of the surety. 

12. Time Drafts. — Time drafts are drafts payable a 
certain number of days after date, and must be accepted by 
the party on whom they are drawn. This is done by writing 
across its face, usually in red ink, because of its prominence, 
the word accfptcd^ the date, and his signature. The due 
date is figured so many days after the date of acceptance, 
and not after the date on which it was drawn. 

Drafts drawn by other persons on us, and accepted by us, 
are to us Bills Payable ; drafts received by us and payable to 
our order, drawn by some one on a third party, and accepted 
bv him, are to us Bills Receivable. 



13. Bank Drafts. — For convenience and safety in 
remitting from one part of the country to another without 
actually transferring the cash, banks open accounts with each 
other, and when it is desired to remit an amount, a draft 
may be drawn on a bank in the city where the payment is to 
be made. This is sold to the party wishing to remit, who 
forwards it. 

14. Bills of Excliang-e. — Bills of exchange are drafts 
drawn by one bank on another and payable to a third party. 
They are more generally used between banks in different 
countries than between those of the same country. The 
only difference between a bill of exchange and an ordinary 
bank draft is that bills of exchange are drawn in sets of two 
or three, and numbered one and two, or one, two, and three, 
as the case may be. In each one of the bills of exchange is 
a clause stating that if that particular bill is paid both the 



§ 29 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 7 

others are void. The reason for making these bills in sets 
of two or three is that each one may be sent by a different 
mail to the party in whose favor it is drawn, endeavoring 
by this to have some one of the different bills reach him in 
case one or more of the others should be lost. 

15. A Cashier's Clieck. — A cashier's check is some- 
times used instead of a bank draft. It is a check drawn by a 
cashier on his own bank, instead of on some other; more 
often this form of check is used where a person located in 
the same town as the bank, but who has no bank account, 
wishes to send some one near by a check. He pays the 
money to. the bank, and receives a cashier's check. Some 
banks prefer in such cases to issue a certificate of deposit. 

16, Bue Bill. — A due bill is a written acknowledgment 
of something due from one party to another. They are not 
usually made payable to order, and are frequently without a 
date, and seldom mention the name of the place or State. 




17. Post-Office Money Order. — A post-office money 
order is an order for money, drawn by one post-ofHce on 
another, payable to the order of some certain person. Some 
of the smaller offices do not issue money orders, but those 
that do issue them furnish free of charge a blank applica- 
tion, to be filled out by the party desiring the order. 

The party fills out this application by entering the date, 
the amount desired, the name and address of the party to 
whom payable, and signs the same. The postmaster then 
issues the order, charging for the same according to the 
amount of the order. A schedule of these charges is always 
printed on the back of the application. 



DOUBLE-?:XTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



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§ 29 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 9 

18. Ortlei'. — An order is the request of one party on 
another that he deliver certain goods or money to the party 
named in the order, or to the said party's order, or to bearer, 
and charge the same to the drawer. 










19. Express Money Order. — An express money order 
is an order drawn by one office of an express company on 
another office of the same company, requesting them to pay 
to the person named in the order a certain sum of money, 
also named in the order. These orders are purchased by the 
sender of the money from his local office, at a small additional 
charge over the face of the order. 

20. Opening Entry. — We make the opening entry for 
this set in the Journal, using the same form as in the last 
set, investing the Resources and Liabilities on hand at the 
close of the last set. The following transactions are then 
entered in the different books of the set, as illustrated, the 
Cash Book and Banking Ledger balanced; these books, the 
Sales Book and Journal, are then ruled up, posted to the 
Ledger, after which a Trial Balance is taken, the same as 
in the previous sets, and statements of account sent to 
customers. 



lu DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 29 

Before we can make a statement of the business in this 
set, we must take an inventory of the merchandise remain- 
ing on hand unsold. 

21. Inventory-. — To take "stock" or an inventory- 
means to ascertain as near as possible the real value of the 
merchandise or other property on hand belonging to the 
business. To do this, it is necessary to go through the 
establishment and make an itemized list of everything in 
stock, together with the estimated value of the same, which 
is usually cost price. 

An inventory is sometimes taken on loose Journal paper, 
but generally a book is used. In taking the inventory, only 
the article, quantity on hand, and valuation are put down, 
the figuring and extensions being entered afterward. For 
inventor}' of merchandise on hand at the end of this model 
set, see the illustration. 

After we have our inventor}-, we can go on and make oi^t 
the statement of the business the same as before, placing the 
inventor}- in the statement with the other resources. Ha\ - 
ing completed the statement in all its parts, Resources and 
Liabilities, Loss and Gain, and Proprietor's Statement, we 
proceed to close the Ledger. 

22. To Close tlie Ledger. — When we have inventories 
on hand, we must enter them, in red ink, on the credit side 
of the accounts they belong to, before we can close the Led- 
ger and get correct results. 

All merchandise actually sold is posted to the credit side 
of the Merchandise account in the Ledger. For convenience 
in closing our books, and in order to make a correct showing 
of the business done, we make a supposed sale of the goods 
on hand, by entering the Inventory of Merchandise as above ; 
we make this entr}- in red ink, to show that it is a fictitious 
entr}', and not posted from any book. 

"Were the inventor}' one of real estate, store and office 
furniture, chattels, or any other account, it would be treated 
in the same wav. "When we have entered the inventories in 



§ 29 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 11 

red, on the credit side of the accounts they belong to, pro- 
ceed to close the Ledger in exactly the same manner as here- 
tofore, adding the amount of the. inventories in with the 
other amounts on the credit side of the accounts where they 
appear. 

The inventories are transferred in black to the .opposite 
side of the Resource and Liability account, and are brought 
down, in black on the debit side of the account they belong 
to, as balances on hand with which to begin the next month's 



business. 






PRICE I.IST. 




Kinds. 


Cost Price. 


Selling Price. 


No. 60 Sideboards, 


$35.00 


140.00 


" 90 Ext. Tables, 


8.00 


9.00 


** 80 Center Tables, 


3.25 


4.00 


*' 48 Dressers, 


35.50 


38.00 


*' 48 Commodes, 


6.00 


8.00 


** 48 Bedsteads, • 


12.00 


13.50 


** 48 Chiffoniers, 


n.50 


13.50 


*• 84 Oak Chairs, per set 


6.00 


6.75 


" 99 S. P. Mattresses, 


3.60 


4.50 


** 10 6-ft. Tables, 


4.25 


5.00 


*' 144 Sideboards, 


14.00 


15.50 


** 180 C. Dressers, 


7.75 


8.25 


Cane Chairs, 


3.50 


4.00 


Ex. B. W. Bedsteads, 


8.50 


9.50 


Farmers' Desks, 


3.25 


4.25 



33, Discount. — In this set you will not always buy and 
sell at net prices, but will receive and give a discount of a 
certain per cent, when told to. This is customary in busi- 
ness, and is here given so that you may become acquainted 
with this manner of doing business, also as a drill in arith- 
metic. The examples come under the head of percentage ; 
if you are not familiar with this subject, carefully look it up 
in your books. In the next set we shall introduce examples 
in interest. 



U DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 29 

TRANSACTIONS. 

March 2, 180G. 
Open your books with the Resources and Liabilities of the 
last business, making your opening entry in the Journal. 
Pay O. T. WilHs one month's rent, 830. 

2 

Buy of J. A. Clark, for cash, 

6 No. 60 Sideboards, 
25 " 90 Ext. Tables, 
50 " 80 Center " 
24 Farmers' Desks. 
Less lOfo. See Price List. 



Buy of Brown & Warren, on account, 
6 No. 48 Dressers, 
12 " 48 Commodes, 
6 " 48 Bedsteads, 
3 " 48 Chiffoniers. 
Less 0^. 

4 

Sell to M. F. Smith, for cash, 

G No. 60 Sideboards. 

Less 5^. 



Sell to C. A. Sargent, on account, 

6 No. 48 Dressers, 
6 " 48 Commodes, 
3 " 48 Bedsteads. 

Sales-Book entry. 

. 6 



Buy of J. D. Wallace, for your joint note No. 4, at 10 days, 
with W. W. Wade, 

12 No. 144 Sideboards, 

24 " 180 C. Dressers, 

6 " 60 Sideboards, 

3 " 48 Chiffoniers. 

LeSvS 8^. Enter in the Bill Book. Bills Payable. Journal 

entry. 



^ 29 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 13 



Sell H. S. Prentiss, for his note at 5 days, without interest, 

12 Farmers' Desks, 

25 No. 80 Center Tables. 
Enter note in Bill Book. Bills Receivable. Journal entry. 



9 



Sell E. W. Taylor, for cash, 

25 No. 90 Ext. Tables. 
Less 5^. 

10 

Sell G. F. Heustis, on account, 

25 No. 80 Center Tables. 



11 



Buy of J. A. Clark, for cash, 

12 Sets No. 84 Oak Chairs, 

24 No. 99 S. P. Mattresses, 

72 " 10 6-ft. Tables. 
Less 10^. 

12 

Receive certificate of deposit No. 25, for H. S. Prentiss's 
note at 5 days, dated March 7, 1896. Mark paid and how 
paid, in Bill Book. 

13 

Pay Brown & Warren, on account, 1125. 



14 



Sell to C. A. Sargent, for his certified check, 
12 Farmers' Desks. 



16 



Pay J. D. Wallace, for your joint note at 10 days, with 
W. W. Wade, by giving him cashier's check. Mark paid 
and how, in Bill Book. Bills Payable. 

• 17 



Receive sight draft of W. E. Haywood, drawn on J. W. 
Johnson, for IllS, to apply on account. 



U DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. §29 



1> 



Buy of H. R. Barber, on account, 

12 No. lU Sideboards, 
24 ** 180 C. Dressers, 

6 Cane Chairs, 
24 Ex. B. W. Bedsteads. 

Less 8<. 



Sell to C. E. Leach, for his principal-and-surety note, at 
5 days, \\4th W. A. Cone. 

1'2 Xo. 144 Sideboards, 
12 '• 180 C. Dressers, 
6 Cane Chairs. 
Less 5^. Enter in Bill Book. Bills Receivable. 



10 



Buy of J. D. Wallace, for your acceptance, at 3 days, 
25 No. 80 Center Tables, 
12 Farmers' Desks, 
25 Xo. 90 Ext. Tables. 
Enter in Bill Book. Bills Payable. This falls due on 
March 22, which is Sunday, therefore it must be paid on 
March 21, 189G. 



Sell to L. M. Foskett, for his draft at 5 days' sight, on 
E. W. Taylor, 

12 Xo. ISO C. Dressers, 
6 Ex. B. W. Bedsteads. 
Enter in Bill Book. Bills Receivable. 



21 



Pay your acceptance of March 19, favor of J. D. W'allace, 
$320.25. Mark paid and how paid, in the Bill Book. 



Receive bank draft Xo. 5, for $293.55, for payment of C. E. 
Leach's principal-and-surety note, with W. A. Cone, dated 
March IS, 1896. Mark paid and how, in the Bill Book. 



29 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 13 
23 



Buy of Holbrook & White, for your due bill, 
6 Cane Chairs, 
6 No. 60 Sideboards, 
3 " 48 Chiffoniers. 

Enter in Bill Book. Bills Payable. 



24 



Sell to M. F. Smith, for P. O. money order, 
3 No. 48 Chiffoniers. 



25 



Sell to J. E. Gaynor, for his joint-and- several note, at 5 
days, with G. F. Heustis, 

6 Sets No. 84 Oak Chairs, 
6 No. 99 S. P. Mattresses, 
24 " 10 6-ft. Tables. 
Enter in Bill Book. Bills Receivable. 



25 



Receive cash of E. W. Taylor for his acceptance of L. M. 
Foskett's draft of March 20, 1896. Mark paid and how, in 
Bill Book. 

26 

Buy on account of G. W. Wilson, who gives you an order 
on D. P. Ricker for the goods, 

6 No. 48 Dressers, 
12 '' 48 Commodes. 



27' 



Sell to F. P. Gaynor, for express money order, 
48 No. 10 6-ft. Tables, 
18 " 99 S. P. Mattresses. 



•28. 



Pay Holbrook & White for your due bill of March 21, 1896, 
1265. 50. 



16 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPIXG. § i>9 

3n 



Sell to C. A. Sargent, for cash, 

C No. GO Sideboards, 
12 " 180 C. Dressers, 
12 Ex. B. W. Bedsteads, 
12 No. 48 Commodes, 
12 " 80 Center Tables. 
Less 8^. 

30 

Receive certified check, No. 15, for J. E. Ga}-nor's joint- 
and-several note, at 5 days, with G. E. Heustis. 

30 

Sell M. F. Smith, for cash, 

12 No. 90 Ext. Tables, 

13 '• SO Center " 
5 Farmers' Desks. 



Pay Brown & Warren, on account, -$150. 
31 



Sell E. W. Taylor, on account, 

■4 No. 141 Sideboards, 
3 '' ISO C. Dressers. 



31 



Receive of M. F. Smith, check in full of account, $56.90. 



31 



Sell to G. F. Heustis, for cash, 

2 No. 48 Dressers, 

1 Ex. B. W. Bedstead, 

4 Cane Chairs, 

1 No. 48 Chiffonier, 

1 Set No. 84 Oak Chairs, 

4 No. 48 Commodes. 
Less o't. 

31 

Receive W. E. Ha}-wood's check, in full of account, $3.75. 



31 



Pay H. R. Barber, on account, *:250. 



§29 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



17 



SALES BOOK. 



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INVENTORY. 

6 No. 60 Sideboards, $35.00 
13 " 90 Ext. Tables, 8.00 

7 Farmers' Desks, 3.25 

4 No. 48 Dressers, 35.50 

2 " 48 Commodes, 6.00 

5 " 48 Chiffoniers, 11.50 

3 " 48 Bedsteads, 12.00 
5 Sets No. 84 Oak Chairs, 6.00 

8 No. 144 Sideboards, 14.00 

9 " 180 C. Dressers, 7.75 
2 Cane Chairs, 3. 50 
5 Ex. B. W. Bedsteads, 8.50 



1210.00 

104.00 

22.75 

142.00 

12.00 

57.50 

36.00 

30.00 

112.00 

69.75 

7.00 

42.50 

$845.50 



IS 



DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



§ 29 



CASH BOOK. 



4 



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§29 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



19 



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DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. S 29 



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§29 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



21 



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§20 



LEDGER. 



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§29 




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DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING, 

(PART 4.) 



DRY- GOODS dusi:n^ess, 



MODEL SET. 

1. Books Used. — The books used in this set are: The 
Cash Journal, Sales Book, and Ledger. The special object of 
this set is to instruct the student in making Journal entries in 
the Cash Book, thus converting it into a Cash Journal. This 
manner of making entries is very convenient in any business, 
and in a cash business, using the above books, it is probably 
the best method of keeping the accounts for such a business. 

2, Cash Journal. — The Cash Journal is nothing more 
or less than a Cash Book, in^which we enter all transactions 
for cash, on account or otherwise, using the first column on 
each side for all items 7wt cash, and the second column on 
each side for cash items; really, the second column is the 
Cash Book, and the first column is the Journal. 

All entries containing cash are made exactly the same as 
if you were using a Cash Book, entering them in the proper 
column for each side. All entries not containing cash are to be 
entered in the proper column of each side ; they must in them- 
selves form a complete journal entry and exactly balance. All 
items to be debited must be entered on the right-hand page, 
and all items to be credited are entered on the left-hand page. 

For example, we have bought merchandise of Holbrook & 
White, on account, $295.42 (see Cash Journal, Model Set). 
The entry would be, Mdse., Dr.; Holbrook & White, Cr., 
each $295.42. Enter the Mdse. on the credit side of the 

§30 

For notice of the copyright, see pag'e immediately following the title page. 



2 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 30 

Cash Book, placing- the amount in the first column, this 
debits Mdse. and credits Cash; enter Holbrook & White on 
the debit side of the Cash Book, this debits Cash and credits 
Holbrook & White; both the Cash debit and credit being 
the same amount, they cancel, leaving the entry, Mdse. Dr., 
Holbrook & White, Cr. 

While the Cash Journal can be used as the only book 
besides the Ledger, it is better to use a Sales Book if the 
nature of the business is such as to have many sales on 
account. The Cash-Journal system of bookkeeping is adapted 
to a cash business. It is, however, used to g-ood advantage 
in any business where a Cash Book is used for making entries 
of interest, discounts, collections, etc. 

3. Opening Entry. — In this set we shall use a Sales 
Book in connection with the Cash Journal. The opening 
entry can be made in either the Sales Book or the Cash 
Journal, but we prefer the latter, and make it on the first 
right-hand page. All transactions for this set, except sales 
on account, are entered in the Cash Journal. The manner 
of balancing- the Banking Ledger, balancing and ruling the 
Cash Journal, is the same as in the other sets, or any slight 
difference is easily tmderstood from the form given. 

4. Posting. — To post from the Cash Journal, we follow 
the same plan as if posting from the Cash Book ; that is, post 
each debit and credit item separately, and carr}^ the cash 
balance direct to the Trial Balance from the Cash Journal. 

5. Taking' Trial Balance. — The Trial Balance is taken 
the same as in the previous sets. The manner of taking and 
entering the Inventory, closing and ruling up the Ledger, 
and bringing down the balances, is the same as heretofore, 
except that in this and the future sets we will not close the 
personal accounts, but simply transfer the balance of each to 
the Resource and Liability account, omitting the entering 
on the account of the red-ink balance, ruling it up, and bring- 
ing the balance down. This saves labor, and is just as well. 

When an account balances itself, rule it up. It is also best 
to balance the proprietor's account, simply for convenience. 



30 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



PRICE LIST 






Kind. ( 


::ost Price. 


Selling Price. 


Calico, 


1 .03 J 


$ .07. ' 


No. 6 Green Cord, per gross, 


8.40 


9.00. 


Amoskeag Fancy Prints, 


.12 


.14. 


Amoskeag A. Sheetings, 


.16 


.20. 


Union Ginghams, 


.121 


.15. 


Manchester Delaines, 


.20 


.25. 


Victoria Ginghams, 


.15 


.17. 


Simpson's Mourning Prints, 


.Hi 


.15. 


Regretta Shirting, 


.11 


.15. 


Amoskeag Ginghams, 


.15 


.17. 


Brown Canton Flannel, 


.22 


.25. 


Valencia, 


.45 


.50. 


Wamsutta Muslin, 


.31 


.35. 


Gordon Prints, 


.09i 


.121 


Cheesecloth, 


.02f 


.08. 


Tailor's Silk, 


1.121- 


1.50. 


Black Alpaca, 


.38 


.59. 


Blue Storm Serge, 


.50 


.75. 


Merrimac Prints, 


.121 


.15. 



TRANSACTIONS TOR MODEL SET. 

April 1, 1896. 

Open your books with the resources and liabilities of the 
last business, making your opening entry in the Cash Book 
on the first right-hand page preceding the debit and credit 
pages you are to use. 

1 ■ 

Pay O. T. Willis one month's rent, $30. I have made 
arrangements to sell all furniture on hand to F. P. Gaynor, 
on account, at cost price. For itemized list, see inventory 
of last set. 



^ — 

Buy of Holbrook & White, on account, 




1545 yd. Gordon Prints, 


.091 


15 " Tailor's Silk, 


1.121 


1367 " Cheesecloth, 


.02f, 


15 gr. No. 6 Green Cord, 


8.40. 


Less 10^. 





DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 30 

Buy of G. 



Less 10^. 



o 

W. Wilson, on account, 




100 yd. Black Alpaca, 


.38, 


985 " Calico, 


.031, 


760 " Union Ginghams, 


.1-4, 


218 " Blue Storm Serge, 


. 50. 


4 
Taj'lor, for cash. 




750 yd. Cheesecloth, 


.08, 


500 " Gordon Prints, 


•uh 



Sell G. F. Heustis, for his note at 10 days, without interest, 
the following bill of goods : 

25 yd. Blue Storm Serge, .T5, 
5 " Tailor's Silk, 1.50, 

2 gr. No. G Green Cord, 9.00. 



Buy of R. B. Hall, for your note at 15 days, with interest 
at 6,^, the following invoice of goods : 

2955i yd. Amoskeag Fancy Prints, .12, 
1192^ " Amoskeag A. Sheetings, .16, 
2670 " L'nion Ginghams, •12|-. 



Sell C. A. Sargent, for bank draft, 

1401|- 3'd. Amoskeag Fancy Prints, .14, 

93 " Blue Storm Serge, .75, 

125 " Calico, .07. 

8 



Buy of Brown Sc "Warren, for cash, 

22 yd. Simpson's ^lourning Prints, .11|-, 

18 " Amoskeag Ginghams, .15, 

48 " Regretta Shirtings, .11, 

120 " Brown Canton Flannel, .22. 



30 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



Sell G. F. Heustis, for sight draft on G. W. Howard, 
5991 yd. Amoskeag A. Sheetings, .20, 
235 " Gordon Prints, .121 

5 " Tailor's Silk, 1.50. 



10 

Sell C. A. Sargent, for his certified check, 

3 gr. No. 6 Green Cord, 9.00, 
. 1717 yd. Union Ginghams, .15. 

11 

Gave Brown & Warren a sight draft on C. A. Sargent foi! 
the following invoice : 

292 yd. Wamsutta Muslin, .31.- 

13 

Sell G. C. Taft, for his o days' draft on W. C. Whitney, 
45 yd. Black Alpaca, .59, 

42 " Gordon Prints, .12i 

20 " Brown Canton Flannel, .25. 



14 



Pay H. R. Barber cash, $225, on account. 

15 

Receive cash for G. F. Heustis' note at 10 days, dated 
April 5, 1896, $44.25. 

16 

Buy of G. W. Wilson, on account, 

225 yd. Valencia, .45. 

17 

Sell M. F. Smith, on account, 

75 yd. Amoskeag A. Sheetings, .20, 

24 " Regretta Shirtings, .15, 

171 " Amoskeag Fancy Prints, .14. 

18 • 

Receive certificate of deposit for W. C. Whitney's accept- 
ance of April 13, $36. 80. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. S 30 



W 



Sell W. E. Haywood, on account, 

72 yd. Wamsutta Muslin, .35. 

179 " Calico, .07, 

325 " Gordon Prints, .12i 

913 " Union Ginghams, .15. 

21 

Pay R. B. Hall your note at 15 days, with interest at 
dated April G, $879.21 (Int. .^2.20). 



Sell E. W. Taylor, on account, 

325 yd. Amoskeag A. Sheetings, .20, 

175 " Union Ginghams, .15, 

739 '' Am. Fancv Prints, .14. 



Pay W. L. "White, for cleaning and repairing windows, 
812.50. 

24 

Buy of Jordan, Marsh & Co. , on account, 

G75 yd. Manchester Delaines, .20, 
162 " Victoria Ginghams, .15. 



Sell H. R. Barber, on account, 

611 yd. Am. Fancy Prints, .14, 

75 " Blue Storm Serge, .75, 

325 " Calico, .07, 

65 " Brown Canton Flannel, .25, 

132 " Cheesecloth, .08. 



Sell G. F. Heustis, for cash, 

347 yd. Manchester Delaines, .25, 

25 " Victoria Ginghams, .17, 

13 " Regretta Shirtings, .15, 

27 " Am. A. Sheetings, .20. 



30 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



28 



Sell F. P. Gaynor, on account, 

119 yd. Gordon Prints, 
107 " Calico, 
15 " Wamsutta Mnslin, 



,12i 

,07, 
,35. 



29 



Sell W. A. Cone, for certified check, 





97 yd. Am. A. Sheetings 


. 


20, 






140 " Manchester Delaines, . 


25, 






119 " Gordon Prints, 


. 


m, 






315 " Cheesecloth, 


• 


08. 






30 








Sell C. 


E. Leach, for cash, 
497 yd. Union Ginghams, 




.15, 






18 " Brown Canton Flannel, 


.25, 






175 " Wamsutta Muslin, 




,35. 






INVENTORY. 




69 yd. 


Amoskeag A. Sheetings, 


$ .16 




$11.04 


188 " 


Manchester Delaines, 


.20 




37.60 


22 " 


Simpson's Mourning Prints, 


.Hi 




2.53 


137 " 


Victoria Ginghams, 


.15 




20.55 


11 " 


Regretta Shirting, 


.11 




1.21 


18 '* 


Amoskeag Ginghams, 


.15 




2.70 


17 " 


Brown Canton Flannel, 


.22 




3.74 


215 ^' 


Gordon Prints, 


.091 




20.43 


170 " 


Cheesecloth, 


.02| 




4.68 


5 " 


Tailor's Silk, 


1-m 




5.63 


145 " 


Black Alpaca, 


.38 




55.10 


128 '' 


Union Ginghams, 


.12i 




16.00 


249 " 


Calico, 


.03f 




9.34 


30 " 


Wamsutta Muslin, 


.31 




9.30 


25 '^ 


Blue Storm Serge, 


.50 




12.50 


10 gr. 


No. 6 Green Cord, 


8.40 




84.00 


225 yd. 


Valencia, 


.45 




101.25 



1397.60 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



^ 30 



s 









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CASH JOURXAL. 



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§30 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



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DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



^ 30 



SALES BOOK. 











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§30 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



11 



LEDGER. 



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30 



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DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



§30 



10 



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DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING 

(PART 5.) 



aE:N^EiiAi.-MEiicHA:N^DiSE busi:n^ess. 



MODEI. SET. 

1. Books Used. — The books used in this set are: the 
Order Book, Sales Book, Purchase Book, Cash Book, Journal, 
and Ledger. This set will explain the use of the above books, 
the manner of opening and closing books for a partnership, 
and the dividing of the gains or losses as the case may be. 

2. Order Book. — This is a book commonly used for the 
entering of orders received from customers. They are entered 
in this book from the written or verbal order, and the goods 
are packed, shipped, and billed according to the order as 
found here. This entry not only gives the number and kind 
of goods wanted, but tells how to ship them. In some busi- 
ness houses it is also the custom to enter the terms and price 
at which the goods are sold. For form and manner of enter- 
ing orders see Order Book of model set. 

There is no posting to be done from this book, its object 
and advantage being that of having all the orders in a con- 
venient place from which to pack them up and check them 
off as shipped and billed. In case only a part of an order is 
shipped, that part is so marked and the balance brought for- 
ward from day to day until shipped. 

3. Piircliase Book. — This book is the opposite of a 
Sales Book, being kept to record the purchases of all goods 
for the business. 

§31 

For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page 



2 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 31 

The entries are made in it the same as in the Sales Book 
but the parties whose names appear here are to be credited 
instead of debited, as in the Sales Book. 

In posting from this book the total footing for the week, or 
a month, is posted to the debit of Merchandise and the differ- 
ent items are credited for the amount appearing against them. 

The advantage of this book is mainly the same as that of 
the Sales Book; it saves posting, and it also gives us a con- 
venient place of reference for all the items bought, the price 
paid for them, and the party bought of. 

4. Opening Entry. — The opening entry for this set is 
made, for the former proprietor, exactly the same as in the 
previous sets, but preceded by an explanation of what the 
partnership is for and its terms. The incoming partner 
invests only cash, therefore the only opening entry needed 
for him is to credit him and debit Cash in the Cash Book. 
The cash that the former proprietor has on deposit is to be 
withdrawn, and, together with the investment of the incom- 
ing partner, is to be deposited in the name of the company. 

5. Articles of Copartnersliip. — This is the agreement 
entered into by the parties to the partnership. It sets forth 
the share and part each takes in the business, tells what kind 
of business is to be carried on and where it shall be located, 
in fact, it tells all things agreed to concerning the business. 

6. Lease. — A lease is an agreement between the land- 
lord and the tenant wherein one of the parties agrees to let 
or lease to the other, certain premises for which the other 
party agrees to pay a certain monthly or yearly rental. 

A lease may be made with or without the privilege of 
renewal. When they are made subject to renewal, it will be 
understood to be at the same rent, if not otherwise specified. 

7. Insurance Policy. — Insurance is a contract by which 
one party undertakes to indemnify another party against loss. 
There are many kinds of insurance, but the most important 
are Maritime, Fire, and Life Insurance. The kind here intro- 
duced is Fire Insurance, one party, the insurance company, 



§ 31 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 3 

agreeing for a certain sum, called a premium, to indemnify 
the insurer against loss by fire. The premium is the sum 
paid for the insurance and is a certain per cent, on the amount 
insured. The policy is the contract between the parties. 

AGREEMENT OF COPARTXERSHIP. 

This Agreement Witnessetli, That ^- ^- ^^^^'^ 

^£ Scr anion, Pa., SiXid ^' ^^' ^^^^^ 



of Scr anion, Pa., have this day agreed to associate 

themselves together as a copartnership, for the purpose of 

en^ap"inp* in ^ General-Afercha7idise Bitsiness, 

^^ I1.22 Main Sir eei, Scr anion. Pa., under 

the firm name and style of H. B.Wells &^ Co., ^^^ 

term of said copartnership to continnf^ for one year from 

and after the^_Z!Zi__day of i!^fy:^_^_189A_unless 

sooner dissolved. 

The aggregate amount of capital to be put into the business 
of said copartnership is to he -^^-^ thousand ihree hundred one 
a7id Zi Dollars, of which amount the ^nirl ^- B- Wells 



-100 



agrees to put in Thiriy-one hu7idredfifiy and j| no11;:^rc;^ 

the said ^ ^^^- Lord po-rpf^c; to put in Thiriy-one 

hundred fifiy and £ Dollars, and the said copartners shall 

share all losses and profits of the said copartriprship eqijaib'- 

Each of the parties to this contract hereby binds himself to 
work to the best interests of the copartnership, and to give his 
time and attention to the business of the firm as follows: 

H. B. Wells is to cond^ici ihe business and r eceive a salary of 
$100 per month for so doin^, which salary sh all be charged to ihe 
general expense of the business. F. IV. Lord takes no active pari in 
ihe co7iduci of the business. 



DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



§ 31 



And the s:dd partners shall be permitted to draw out of the 
business of said copartnership in cash or merchandise, or 
both, the following amounts, to wit : 

//. B. Jl't'/Zs may draiu to the amoujif of S7o per vioJiih besides his 
salary. F. W. Lord })iay draw to the amount of %7o per month. 

It is especially agreed that neither of the parties to this 
contract shall sign or endorse any bond, note, draft, or com- 
mercial paper, nor sign any official or other bond, or do any 
other act to create a financial liability or obligation, without 
the written consent of his copartner. 

At the expiration or sooner determination of said copartner- 
ship, the business and property of said firm may be closed out 
by sale; and after all debts and liabilities are paid and dis- 
charged, the amount remaining shall be divided between the 
partners in the ratio of their respective interests; or if the 
partners so agree, the copartnership may be continued for 
such further time, and upon such terms, as the members 
thereof may be able to agree upon. 

Witness our hands this__Z!Zil__day of -^^^H'- 1 80i-_ 

H. B. Wells. 



F. JJ\ Lord. 



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§ 31 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

X.EASI:. 



It is Hereby Agreed, BET]VEEX_ 



O. T. Willis ^ 



partJ^of the first part, and. 



H. B. Wells &o Co. 



part ^^^ of the second part, as follows : The said partiof the 
first part, in consideration of the rents and covenants herein 
specified, do_^hereby Let and Lease to the said part_f£:Lof 
the second part, the following described premises, situated and 
being in the City ^ f Scranton. ^^^^^^^^^^ 

Lackawatina ^CdA State of Pennsylimnia, 

to Avit' ^ store at 1^22 Main Street, 



for the term of one year f^^.^ ^^^ ^£^gj. thp fi'-'i ^^j of 
May, IRC)^^ on the terms and conditions hereinafter men- 
tioned, to be occupied for ^^ Ge^teral-Merc/iandise Business. 

Provided, That in case any rent shall be due and unpaid, 
or if default shall be made in any of the covenants herein 
contained, then it shall be lawful for the said partJLof the 
first part ^Ili certain attorney, heirs, representa- 
tives, and assigns, to reenter into, repossess the said premises, 
and the said parti£f_of the second part, and each and every 
other occupant, to remove and put out. 

And the said part ^^^ of the second part do hereby hire 

the said premises for the term of ^^^^ ^'^^^^ as above 

mentioned, and do covenant and promise to pay to the 

said partZ_of the first part, ^III. representatives and 

assigns, for rent of said premises for said term the sum of 

T7ueh'e hundred dollars, to be paid as follows: 

One hundred dollars i?i ad7m7ice on the first day of May and one 
hundred dollars on the first day of each succeedi7ig month for one year. 



Said parti^of the second part further covenant that. 



they 



will not assign nor transfer this lease, or sublet said premises, 



6 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



§31 



or any part thereof, without the written assent of said parti 
of the first part. 

And Also, that said parti££_of the second part will at_i^^£!!l, 
own expense, during the continuance of this lease, keep the 
said premises and every part thereof in as good repair, and 
at the expiration of the term, yield and deliver up the same 
in like condition as when taken, reasonable use and wear 
thereof and damage by the elements excepted. 

And the said partZ_of the first part do ^^ covenant that 
the said parti£f_of the second part, on paying the aforesaid 
instalments and performing all the covenants aforesaid, shall 
and may peacefully and quietly have, hold, and enjoy the 
said demised premises for the term aforesaid. 

The covenants, conditions, and agreements, made and 
entered into by the several parties hereto, are declared bind- 
ing on their respective heirs, representatives, and assigns. 

Witness our hands and seals this fi'''^ day of_i^f^^l89_^ 



Signed, sealed, and delivered in presence of 

M. R. Brown. 

Geo. C. Taft. 



H. B. WeHs &^ Co. 



O. T. Willis. 



L. S. 



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§ 31 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 7 

^^ 26152. (jj. 5000.00. 

THE 

Commercial Fire Insurance Company, 

OF 

NEW YORK, 
In Consideration of Sixfy-two an d _ £ Dollars, 



Do Insure 



THE RECEIPT OF WHICH IS HEREBY ACKNOWLEDGED, 

H. B. Wells &- Co. , 



AGAINST LOSS OR DAMAGE BY FIRE 

To the amount of ^'"^^ Thousand Dollars, 

on the following described property : — 

Their stock in trade ajid fixtures, located in store N'o. 422 Main 
Street, Scranton, Pa. 



Andthe said Commercial Fire Insurance Company hereby 
agrees to make good unto the assured, ^^z£f!l__executors, 
administrators, or assigns, on receipt of proper proofs, all such 
immediate loss or damage, not exceeding in amount the sum 
insured nor the interest of the assured in the property, as shall 
happen by fire to the property above specified, during the term 

of one year commencing at noon on the fi^'^* day of 

^""^'^ eighteen hundred ninety-six ^^^^ terminating at 

noon on the fi^L day of ^^y^ eighteen hundred 

. — mnety-seven — ^^ amount of damage to be estimated accord- 
ing to the actual cash value of the property at the time of the 
loss ; and to be paid within ten days after proper notice and 
proof thereof have been made by the assured. 

In Witness Whereof, the Commercial Fire Insurance 
Company have caused these presents to be signed by their 
President and attested by their Secretary, at the home office, 
in New York. 



8 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



§31 



This policy shall not be valid unless countersigned by 

A, H. Hamilton, ^^^,,,^ ^y ^/^^, ^^/^ Company nt ^cranton. Pa. 

Attested. 

W. /. Kinsley, M. F. Taylor, 



Secretary. President. 

Countersigned this_lZli day of il^^^L^j 189^ 

A. H. Hamilton, 



Agent. 



The Commercial Fire Insurance Company hereby con- 
sents that the interest of 



in the within policy, subject to all the terms and conditions 
herein mentioned and referred to, may be assigned to , 

: i>;9 

Secretary. 



.hereby transfer, assign, and set 
_and assigns 



For Talne Received, _ 

over imto 

all title and interest in this policy, and all 

advantages to be derived therefrom. 

Witness hand and seal this day 

of ISO 



Sealed and delivered in the prese7ice of 



^Pt 






^ ^ ^ 



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§31 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 





Cr^^r 


s for Goods, Sripplies, etc 


., filled at any office of the Co. ivithout extra charge. 




H 
CO 

M 




L EXPRESS COMPANY, 

Scranton. Pa.. tRo 






■v. 

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1 




have occurred from the fraud or gross negligeiic(> of said Comiiany or their 
servants; nor in any event shall this Company lu^ lield liable or responsible; 
nor shall any demand be ina.de iipou them beyond the sum of fifty Dollars, 
at which sum said proiierly is iiereby valued, unless the pist and true value 
thereof is stated herein; nor upon any property or thing unless properly 
packed and secured for transportation ; nor upon any fragile fabrics, 
unless so marked upon the package containing the same ; nor upon any 
fabrics consistiucr of, or contained in, glass. If any sum of money lu'sich's 
the charges for Iransportation is to lie collected from the consignee on (h'liy- 
ery of the above described pi-dperty, and the sa.me is not jiaid within thirty 
days from the dale hereof, the shipper agrees Iha-t t his ( 'dnip.anv may retnrii 
said properly to him at the expiia.l ion of that lime, siilijecl Id Ihe coiiditions 
of this rtM'eipt, a-iid 1 ha.t he will p;iy the chargeslor tiaiispdital ion hot h ways, 
■M\i\ tha,t the lialiility of this Comjiaiiy for such Tiidpert y while in itsiiosses- 
sion for the piiriidse of making such CdUeetion, sluill lu^ that of Warelioiise- 
nieii only. In no (>veiit shall this Compaiiy he liable for any loss or damage 
unless Ihe chum thereof shall he presented to them in \\ ill ing at t his otlice 
wit hi 11 ninety days alter 111 is date. Ill a, statement toA\ liicli this receipt shall be 
annexed. And it is also miderstood that the slipulalKuis cdnlaiiied heiciii 
shall extend to, and iiiiire to, the lienelit of each and ever\ coMiiiany or person 
to whom, through this Company, the above descri lied property may be 
iiilriisted or delivered for 1 i;iiisp(iita,tioii. Deliveries at ail pdiiils reached by 
this Company are only lo be nunh! within the delivery limits eslahlished by 
this ( 'ompaiiy at; suc.h'points at the time of shipment, and prepay iiieiit in such 
cises shall only cover places within such delivery hniils. 'Ihe parly accept- 
ing this receipt hereby agrees to tlie conditions herein coutainetU 


< 

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Whicliwe undertake to forward lo the nearest point of destiiial ion readied 
by this Company, subject (expressly to the following conditions, namely: 
This Company is not to lie held liable for any loss or dama-.ue, e\ce|it as for- 
warders only, nor forany loss or damage by tire, by the dangers ol iia.viga,! ion, 
by the actor (iod, or of the enemies ol the government, the rcslrainls of gov- 
ernment, mobs, riots, insurrections, piialrs, or from, or by r(>asdii of, any of 
the hazards or dangers incident Id a state of wax. Mor shall this Company 
be liable forany default or netili.ijence df a.iiy iiersdii, cdipdratidu, (ir jissocia- 
tionto whom the above described |iid|ieity sha.ll or may he delivered by this 
Company, for the performance (if aii\ act or duly m respect Iheicio, at any 
lilace or point off the established idulcs or lines run by tins Conipa.ny ; and 
anvsuch person, corporation, or assdclat kui, is nut id be ic'-;ar(le(l, ilcemed, or 
taUen to be the agent of this Company loi- any siidi inirpdse, but, on Ihecon- 
trary, such person, corporation, or assdcialion shall h;' deemed ami taken to 
be the agent of the person, corporation, or association from w lioni this ( diii- 
IJany received the pi'operty above described. It being imderstdod Ihat this 
Company relies upon the various Railroad and Steamboat lines of the cdimtry 
for its means of forwarding property delivered to it id be forwarded, it is 
agreed that it shall not be liable for any damage to said propprty caused by 
the detention of any train of cars or of any steamboat upon which said prop- 
erty shall be placed for transiJortation ; nor by the neglect or rclusal of 
any Railroad Coinjjany or Steamboat to receive and forward the said 

It is further agreed that this Company is not to be held liable or responsible 
for any loss of, or damage to, said projierty, or any part thereof, from any 
cause whatever, unless in every case the said loss or damage be proved to 




The Rates charged by this Com- 
pany for the carriage of small 
packages of MERCHANDISE 
and PRINTED MA TTER have 
beeti greatly reduced. 

Further particulars 7vill be 
given upon application to Agents 
of the Company. 







■sd3vut^i puv sot}}j juvjuoifua ]iv of HJVdDHiaX AH SHHdSNVHX AHNON 



10 



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Destination. 





















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I\larks, Consign- 
ee's Address, and 
Destination. 






















§ 31 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 11 

8. Shipping or Forwarding Order. — A shipping or for- 
warding order is a blank, filled out by the party sending goods 
by freight or express, giving the quantity and kind of goods 
shipped and the name and address of the party to whom sent. 

A shipping receipt is a similar blank containing the name 
and address of the party to whom goods are sent, together 
with a list of the goods forwarded, and signed by the agent 
of the company forwarding the goods, showing that they 
received them for transportation. 

9. Closing Books. — The closing of the books for a 
partnership is different from the closing for a single pro- 
prietor only in the manner of disposing of the loss or gain. 

Before closing any books we must have taken a correct 
trial balance. Then we get the inventories, if any. This 
done, we proceed to make out a statement of the resources 
and liabilities of the business, also of the loss and gain. 
Having found the net loss or gain in the business we next 
make a statement of the proprietors' accounts, dividing the 
loss or gain between them according to agreement. 

To close the Ledger we enter the inventories and proceed 
exactly as heretofore until we are ready to close the Loss and 
Gain account. This is then closed by entering the amount of 
loss or gain, as divided between the partners, on the smaller 
side and transferring the same to their respective accounts. 

Rule up books of original entry and all accounts in the 
Ledger that balance. Bring down all inventories and 
Resources and Liability balances. 



PRICE I.IST. 




Kinds. - Cost Price. 


Selling Price. 


St. Louis Extra Flour, 113.50 


$14.00 


State Superfine " 8.25 


9.00 


Mess Pork, 18.00 


21.00 


White Genesee Wheat, 3.00 


3.25 


Oats, .50 


.65 


Rye, .(35 


.75 


Sugar, .09 


.12 


Apples, 1.15 


2.20 


Young Hyson Tea, 1.25 


1.75 



12 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 31 

TRANSACTIONS FOR MODEL SET. 

May 1, 189t>. 

In this set you are to use a Cash Book with Mdse. column. Pur- 
chase Book, Order Book, Sales Book, Journal, and Ledger. 

H. B. Wells and F. W. Lord have this day formed a part- 
nership, for the purpose of conducting a General-Merchan- 
dise Business, at No. 42*2 Main Street, Scran ton, Pa., in a 
store leased of O. T. Willis, at a monthly rental of #30, pay- 
able in advance. The style of the firm name is to be H. B. 
Wells & Co. The losses and gains are to be di\'ided equally. 
It is further agreed that H. B. Wells is to receive a salary 
of 1=100 per month, for conducting the business, which is to 
be charged to the general expense of the business, as per 
agreement in the articles of copartnership. 

H. B. Wells invests the resources and liabilities as shown 
at the close of the last ^lodel Set, and F. W. Lord invests 
cash (^3150.56). Make opening entry in your Journal. 

1 

Pay O. T. Willis one month's rent in advance, #30. 



Settle all open personal accounts to date by drawing sight 
drafts on those who are owing you, and by giving your 
checks to those whom you are owing. Render statements 
to all parties owing you. Post and rule up these accounts. 

4 

Pay A. H. Hamilton, : r insuring store and contents, 
#5000 at li^, $62.50. 



Sell all Mdse. in stock (see last Model Set Inventory) to 
date to M. F. Smith, on account at cost price, $397.60. 

6 

Buy of Brown & Warren, on account, 

50 bbl. St. Louis Extra Flour, 
HX) '* State Superfine " 



Sell G. F. Heustis. for cash, 

25 bbl. St. Louis Extra Flour. 



§ 31 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 13 



Buy of Holbrook & White, for cash, 
50 bbl. Mess Pork. 



Sell E. W. Taylor, for cash, 

25 bbl. State Superfine Flour. 



11 



Buy of F. H. White, for cash, 

50 bu. White Genesee Wheat. 

12 ■ 



Buy of J. A. Clark, on account, 

75 bu. Oats, 
65 " Rye. 

13 



Sell E. W. Taylor, for his note at 10 days, with interest 
at 6fc, 

1 bbl. St. Louis Extra Flour, 
1 " State Superfine " 
1 " Mess Pork. 

14 



Sell F. P. Gaynor, for certified check, 
25 bu. Genesee Wheat, 
25 " Oats, 
25 " Rye. 

15 

Buy of J. D. Wallace, on your note at 5 days, without 
interest, 

2 hhd., 3200 1b., Sugar. 

16 ■ 

Sell C. E. Leach, on account, 

3 bbl. St. Louis Extra Flour, 
1 " Mess Pork, 
1300 lb. Sugar. 

18 

Sell W. A. Cone, for cash, 

25 bbl. State Superfine Flour. 



14 DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 31 



10 



Buy of R. B. Hall, for cash, 

125 bbl. Apples. 

2u 

Pay to J. D. Wallace your note at 5 days, dated May 15, 
$288.' 



Buy of G. W. "Wilson, for cash, 

2 Chests, 300 lb., Young Hyson Tea. 

23 

Receive certificate of deposit of E. W. Taylor, for his note 
at 10 days, with interest at 6^. 

25 

Sell G. F. Heustis, on account, 

'75 lb. Young Hyson Tea, 
900 '' Sugar, 
25 bbl. Apples. 



Sell C. A. Sargent, for cash, 

11 bbl. St. Louis Extra Flour, 
25 " Mess Pork. 



28 



Sell G. F. Heustis, for cash, 

24 bbl. State Superfine Flour, 

25 bu. White Genesee Wheat. 

29 



Sell R. B. Hall, for cash, 

500 lb. Sugar, 
75 bbl. Apples. 

30 

Sell L. M. Foskett, on account, 

1T5 lb. Youns: Hvson Tea. 



30 



Pay H. B. Wells cash for salary, for month of May, 6100. 
Consider all inventories less 5^. 



§ 31 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



15 



JOURXAL. 



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DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPIXG. 



§ 31 



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DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



17 



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LEDGER IXDEX. 



B— Bills Payable, 5. 

Brown & Warren, 7. 

Bills Receivable, 12. 

Barber, H. R., 6. 
C— Clark, J. A., 24 
E — Expense, 3. 
F— Foskett, L. M., 23. 
G— Gaynor, F. P., 17. 
H— Haywood, W. E., 8. 

Heustis, G. F., 15. 

Holbrook & White, 18. 
I— Interest. 20. 



J — Jordan, Marsh & Co., 19. 
L — Loss and Gain, 10. 

Lord, F. W., 21. 

Leach, C. E., 22. 
M — Merchandise, 4. 
R — Resources and Liabilities, 11. 
S— Smith, M. F., 9. 

Sargent, C. A., 14. 
T— Taylor, E. W., 16. 
W— Wells, H. B., 1. 

Wilson, G. W., 13. 



18 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



31 



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IXVEXTORY. 






May 30, 1896 




lObbl 


. St. Louis Extra Flour, $13.50 


25 " 


State Superfine Flour, 


8.25 


23 - 


Mess Pork, 


18.00 


25 " 


Apples, 


1.15 


50 bu. 


Oats, 


.50 


40 '' 


Rye, 


.65 


500 lb. 


Sugar, 


.09 


50 " 


Young Hyson Tea, 


L25 



Less 5^ 



$135.00 
206.25 
414.00 
28.75 
25.00 
26.00 
45.00 
62.50 

$942.50 
47.13 

S895,37 



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DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



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21 



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DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

(PART 6.) 



PRODUCE AWD PROVISIOlSr BUSIIS^ESS, 



MODEL SET. 

1. PartnersMp. — The books used in this set are: The 
Six-Column Journal, Order Book, Sales Book, and Ledger. 
This set introduces the keeping of accounts by the use of 
several columns in one of the books of original entry. 
There are three debit and three credit columns on each 
page, and the book is, therefore, called a Six-Column 
Journal. With this book we use an Order Book for conve- 
nience in packing and shipping goods, and a Sales Book in 
which we enter all sales on account. 

3, Six-Column Journal. — The Six-Column Journal, as 
indicated by the name, is a book containing six columns, 
three of which are on the debit side and three on the credit 
side. All debit items are entered in the debit columns and 
all credit items in the credit columns. A more appropriate 
name for this book would be " Special-Column Journal," as 
this form of book is often used with more than six columns 
and sometimes with less. The principal object in this style 

§32 

For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 



2 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 32 

of book is the saving of labor in posting. This is done by 
the use of special columns for Merchandise and Cash, the 
footings of which are posted once a month, or once a week 
as desired, while the separate items in the sundry columns 
are posted daily to the account to which they belong. 

Each column is footed at the close of each page. The 
sum of the credit columns should exactly equal the sum of 
the debit columns. This test should always be made before 
the footings are written in ink or carried for\vard. Each 
page is footed and the footings carried forward from page to 
page until the end of the week or month, when the footings 
of each column of each side are brought under the footings 
of the Sundry column and added together. These total 
footings of each side should exactly balance, and it is the 
items that compose this total footing of each side that are 
posted to the debit and credit of the accounts that the special 
columns represent. 



3. Openiiic: Entry. — This set will be opened for a part- 
nership, using the Resources and Liabilities on hand at the 
close of the last set. Immediately after making the opening 
entry, the student buys out his partner and from then on 
conducts business as an individual proprietor, under the 
name of the old firm. At the time of buying out his partner, 
the student receives from him an agreement setting forth 
the terms of purchase, etc. This agreement is not made 
after any set form, being merely a writing to show what 
each party agreed to do and not to do at the time of the 
purchase. 

4. Entering Ti*ansactions. — As the student must now 
understand the manner of entering transactions in the Order 
Book and Sales Book, we will proceed at once to explain the 
manner of entering those transactions that go in the Six- 
Column Journal. All entries, except sales on account, are 
entered in this book. In the center of each page is the 
ruled space for the Journal entries and their explanations. 



§ 32 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 3 

The first column on each side is for sundry debits and 
credits, the second on each side is for Merchandise, and the 
third and last for Cash. 

In making an entry, first decide on your debit and credit 
items; journalize these in the ruled space and follow with a 
full explanation of the transaction. Then, if either part of 
the Journal entry affects Merchandise or Cash, enter this 
amount in the proper column on the side it belongs. Any 
debit or credit item that does not affect these accounts is 
entered in the Sundry column on whichever side it 
belongs. 

The ruling, posting, and taking of the Trial Balance and 
Inventories is the same for this set as for the previous ones, 
also the making out of the statement of the business, closing 
the books, bringing down the balances, etc. 

5. "Ne^w Accounts. — In this set are introduced accounts 
with Chattels, Store and Office Furniture, and Real Estate, 
all of which are speculative accounts. For their meaning, 
see Mercantile Terms in Set 1. 

6. Shipments.— -A shipment is a quantity of goods not 
sold, but shipped to some person for sale. This person is 
usually called a commission merchant. He acts as selling 
agent for the person sending the goods, charging him a 
certain per cent, of the sales for selling the goods. This 
charge is called Commission, and is deducted by the seller 
from the amount received from the sale of the goods. He 
also deducts any charges that he may have paid in the way 
of freight, drayage, cooperage, insurance, storage, etc. The 
amount remaining after deducting the charges and commis- 
sion is called the Net Proceeds, and belongs to the party 
sending the goods to be sold. 

When a shipment is made, the goods are not charged to 
the party to whom they are sent, but to shipment No. 1, 2, 
or 3 (according to how many you have previously sent the 
same person), to so and so, here naming the person to whom 
sent. The goods are usually charged at cost price; if the 



4 DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 32 

net proceeds are more than this, of course that difference is 
the net gain ; if less, then it is a loss. 

7 . Consigrnnients. — The terms shipment and consign- 
ment are used interchangeably, except when we are both 
sending and receiving goods to be sold on commission, in 
which case we apply sliipmciit to goods sent to be sold and 
consignment to goods received to be sold by us on commis- 
sion for some one else. 

S. Account Sales. — An account sales is an account 
rendered by the commission merchant to the shipper of the 
goods sold, sho^^-ing the price obtained for the goods, an 
itemized statement of the charges, and the amount of the 
net proceeds. Each commission house has a form suited to 
its particular business. 

The following form is one often used and from it others 
can easily be designed : 

ACCOIM SUES. 

Of Merchandise Received ^ 169 

From : 

To be sz'.i cr c:y>\>-'-:ss::K 



Wei 



CK\RCE5- J 

Freight, ' 

Drayagc 

Commission, 2 per c_ 

■ije 

-S^-Z-KLC 

AC>eftiSJrg, .... 



Zc--pera5e L 

Mfe-ffiAiM/ D^-foracS.Proceer.v L 



5xcoo Proceeds, 
SET PROCffDS. 



§ 32 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 5 

9. Account Purcliase. — This is a blank that, when filled 
out, shows in an itemized form all the expenses contracted in 
purchasing goods. These forms are used by agents and 
commission men when buying goods for other parties. They 
are quite similar to an account sales, but of course directly 
opposite in meaning and what they show. 

10. Suspense Account. — This account is used in the 
place of Loss and Gain account for notes and personal 
accounts whose collection is deemed doubtful. The princi- 
pal object in closing these accounts to Suspense Account is 
to reduce them to one account and thus save labor in carry- 
ing them into the monthly Trial Balance, and at the same 
time be able to tell just how much and where you have lost 
in worthless accounts. 

If you close an account to Suspense Account and afterward 
receive all or part of the amount due, you credit Suspense 
Account for the amount received. Suspense Account is 
closed by some houses direct to the proprietor's account, and 
by some to Loss and Gain and through this to the proprietor's 
account; in either case the result is the same. Some houses 
do not keep this account at all, but close all doubtful accounts 
direct to Loss and Gain. 



PRICE LIST. 




Kinds. 


Cost Price. 


Selling Pr 


XX Flour, 


$4.50 


$5.25 


Pork, 


9.15 


10.20 


Apples, 


1.15 


2.20 


Salt, 


.83 


1.04 


Barley, 


.58 


.79 


Corned Beef, 


9.75 


10.50 


Sugar, 


.06i 


.08 


Bacon, 


.06^ 


.08 


Beans, 


1.60 


1.85 


Hominy, 


4.20 


4.65 


N. O. Molasses, 


.75 


.85 




DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



TRANSACTIONS FOR MODEL SET. 

ScRANTON, Pa., June 1, 1896. 

H. B. Wells & Co. have this day leased store, No. 422 
Main Street, of O. T. Willis at a monthly rental of $30, pay- 
able in advance, for the purpose of conducting a general 
Produce and Provision Business, with the Resources and 
Liabilities as shown at the close of the last month's business. 
Make opening entry in Six-Column Journal. 

1 



H. B. Wells has this day agreed to allow his partner to 
withdraw his entire interest in the business in cash, $3274.28. 
Debit F. W. Lord and credit Cash. 



Pay O. T. Willis one month's rent, S30. 



Buy of J. A. Clark, for cash, 

1 Horse and Wagon (Chattels), $250.00 

1 Letter Press and Apparatus, 1 Store and ( 7.50 

1 Fairbanks Platform Scale, j- Office j 75.00 

1 Truck, J Furniture. I 20.00 



Sell Brown & Warren, on account, all merchandise on 
hand at cost price ($942. 50). For itemized list, see inventor}? 
at close of last model set. 



Buy of M. F. Smith, on account, less lOfo, 
100 bbl. XX Flour, 

50 " Pork, 
100 " Apples. 



Buy of J. A. Clark, on account, 

200 bbl. Salt. 



§ 32 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



Sell C. E. Leach, for his 5 days' draft on W. A. Cone, the 

following: 

25 bbl. Pork. 



Buy of Holbrook & White, for your sight draft on L. M. 
Foskett, the following invoice of goods: 
1800 lb. Bacon, 
25 bu. Beans, 
75 " Barley. 



10 



Sell M. F. Smith, on account, 

5 bbl. XX Flour, 
10 " Apples, 
15 " Salt. 



11 



Give O. T. Sawin cash, for signs, 



12 



Buy of Brown & Warren, for your note at 10 days, with 
interest at 6^, the following invoice of goods: 
20 bbl. Sugar, 5280 lb., 
80 " Hominv. 



13 



Receive certified check of W. A. Cone, for his acceptance 
of C. E. Leach's draft at 5 days, dated June 8, 1896 (1255). 

15 



Make a shipment to M. A. Mann, Wilkes-Barre, Pa., of 
25 bbl. XX Flour, invoiced at 14.50, to be sold on commis- 
sion. 

10 

Buy of F. P. Gaynor, on account, 

22 bbl. Corned Beef. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 32 



Sell C. A. Sargent, for his joint note at 10 days, with 
interest at S^, with L. M. Foskett, 

5 bbl. Sugar, 1320 lb., 
900 lb. Bacon. 

18 



Receive cash, $219, of C. E. Leach, in full of account to 
date. 

19 

Buy the following invoice of goods of J. A. Clark and give 
in payment a draft for SlGl. 4-4 at 3 days' sight on M. A. 
Mann, Wilkes- Barre, Pa., on account of our shipment No. 1, 
made on the 15th inst. : 

5 bbl. N. O. :\Iolasses, 219^ gal. 

20 



Sell H. S. Prentiss, for cash, 

35 bbl. XX Flour, 
25 " Apples, 
40 " Hominy, 
11 " Corned Beef. 



22 



Pay Brown & Warren cash, $680.33, for your note at 
10 days with interest at 6fc, dated June 12, 1896. 



23 



Buy of E. E. Cleveland, for cash, 10 acres Redwood land 
in Humboldt Co., Cal., at $50 ($500). 

24 



Sell E. W. Taylor, on account, 
450 lb. Bacon, 

5 bbl. Sugar, 1320 lb. 

25 



Receive account sales and money order for $25, net pro- 
ceeds of our shipment No. 1. 



§ 32 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



26 



Receive of A. R. Merrifield, Springfield, Mass., the fol- 
lowing merchandise as a consignment, paying freight $10, 
drayage |2. 50. 

180 bu. Beans, 
270 bbl. Salt, 

7 doz. pairs Men's Shoes, 
960 lb. Bacon. 

27 



Receive cash, 1177. 9y, of C. A. Sargent for his joint note, 
at 10 days, with interest at 8^, with L. M. Foskett^ dated 
June 17, 1896. 

• 27 

Sell G. F. Heustis, for cash, $400, the horse and wagon, 
1300, and store and office furniture, $100, purchased on the 
3d inst. 

27 • 

Sell J. A. Clark, A. R. Merrifield's consignment No. 1, 

for cash, -$325. 

27 

Remit A. R. Merrifield account sales and proceeds of con- 
signment No. 1, after entering your charges of commission, 
2^^ of sales, 1325; insurance, J^; storage, ^^; advertising, J^. 

29 



Sell real estate purchased the 23d inst. to G. W. Wilson 
for cash, $1000. 

30 

Sell all merchandise on hand to W. A. Cone for cash. 



30 



Draw sight drafts on all parties who are owing you, except 
L. M. Foskett, whose account is considered doubtful, and is 
now closed to Suspense Account ; then pay all parties whom 
you are owing, thus reducing your business to a cash basis. 



10 DOUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

:SlX-COLL-MX JOl KXAL. 



§32 



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^3iSS-3 



A SERIES 



OF 



QUESTIONS AND EXAMPLES 

Relating to the Subjects 
Treated of in this Volume. 



It will be noticed that the various Question Papers that 
follow have been given the same section numbers as the 
Instruction Papers to which they refer. No attempt should 
be made to answer any of the questions or to solve any of 
the examples until the Instruction Paper, having- the same 
section number as the Question Paper in which the questions 
or examples occur, has been carefully studied. 



GRAMMAR, 

(PART 1.) 



(1) Distinguish between language in its luidest sense and 
language as ti^eated iit grammar. 

(2) Explain why words pass out of use and new words 
appear in a language. 

(3) Give a general sketch of the various matters included 
in the subject of grammar. 

(4) Define grammar^ and mention its general heads or 
divisions. 

(5) Explain what is meant by zuords arranged in relation 
and words out of relation. Illustrate each. 

(6) What is the difference between an idea and a tJiougJit? 

(7) Explain fully what is included in etymology; also, 
what should be found in syntax. 

(8) State and illustrate the three uses or purposes served 
by sentences. 

(9) Define sentences with respect to use. 

(10) Give, in words of your own choosing, the substance 
of what is said in the Instruction Paper about exclamatory 
sentences. 

(11) Write two sentences of each of the following kinds: 
exclamatory - declarative^ exclamatory - interrogative^ and 
excla mat or y- imp era t ive. 

For notice of the copyrig-ht, see pa^e iininediately followin.e: the title pai^e. 



2 GRAMMAR. § U 

(l-i) Illustrate \vhat is meant by sentences of mixed form. 

(i:}) "What are the chief uses of capital letters and marks 
of pimctiiation ? 

(14) Underscore the subject nouns, and doubly under- 
score the predicate verbs, of the following sentences: 

{a) How pretty are the many-colored clouds at sunset. 

{I)) Brief but delightful are the happy days of youth. 

{c) Round the rough ring the rugged rascals ran. 

[d) Is the steady, old-fashioned horse to become extinct in civilized 



land 



s .' 



(c) Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth. 

(15) Define and illustrate the siibjeet and Xh.e predicate of 
a declarative -sentence. 

(IC) "Write five declarative sentences, and then make them 



(IT) Explain and illustrate the exact work of a modifier. 

(18) Write the following quotation, and underscore its 
nouns; also, doubly imderscore its verbs: 

" Courage I " he said, and pointed toward the land, 
"This mounting wave will roll us shoreward soon." 
In the afternoon they came unto a land 
In which it seemed always afternoon. 
All round the coast the languid air did swoon, 
Breathing like one that hath a weary dream. 
Full-faced above the valley stood the moon ; 
And, like a downward smoke, the slender stream 
Along the cliff to fall and pause and fall did seem. 

(in) "Write the pronouns that are used in each sentence in 
Art. 31, and place them in the order in which they occur 
there. 

(2(») Explain why the pronoun is a more convenient word 
in speech than the noun. Define the pronoun. 

(21) Make a list of the verbs that occur in the quotation 
given in Art. 34. 

(:22) As in Art. 37, place suitable modifiers after / eat. 



§ 14 GRAMMAR. 3 

(23) Write two sentences each containing all the various 
parts of speech except the interjection. 

(24) As in Art. 39, bring the following pairs into relation 
by means of suitable prepositions, two or more for each pair: 

go the Jiouse ; speak the sei^inon ; living pain ; 

angry oppositioji; sivain ■ river. 

(25) State and illustrate the principal difference between 
prepositions and conjunctions. 



GRAMMAR, 

(PART 2.) 



(1) Write sentences illustrating the use of nouns or 
pronouns as independent : {a) with a verbal to express 
a cause; {b) in direct address; {c) by pleonasm; {d) by 
exclamation. 

(2) Tell the use of each noun and pronoun in the follow- 
ing sentences: 

Croesus, a king of Lydia, was the possessor of enormous wealth. 
Pebbles on the seashore are rounded by the action of the waves. 
Honor ; he is not at all a man of honor. 

You do not always overcome an opponent by vanquishing him in 
argument. 

(3) Illustrate the six principal uses that may be made of 
nouns and pronouns, omitting their use as subject of a 
sentence. 

(4) Tell the use made of each noun in the following: 

The day is done, and the darkness 

Falls from the wings of Night, 
As a feather is wafted downward 

From an eagle in his flight. 

(o) Explain and illustrate the three principal uses of the 
adjective. 

(6) Write two sentences showing the various uses of the 
adverb. 

§15 

For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 



2 GRAMMAR. § 15 

(T) Tell \vmch words are adjectives and which adverbs in 
the following; tell also what each modifies. 

Swing on, old pendulum of the earth, 

Forever and forever, 
Keeping the time of suns and stars, 

The march that endeth never. 
Long as you swing shall earth be glad. 

And men be partly good and bad ; 
Long as you swing shall wrong come right. 

As sure as morning follows night. 
The days go wrong, the ages never. 

Swing on, old pendulum, swing forever. 

(8) Define a phrase, and construct five sentences each 
containing a phrase. L'nderscore the phrases, and tell how 
each is nsed. ' 

(9) Mention the phrases in example 9, Art. T, and tell 
what each phrase modifies. 

(10) Define a clause, and construct a sentence that con- 
sists of two or more clauses. 

(11) State the principal uses of the clause, and construct 
sentences to illustrate those uses. 

(1'2) Mention the classes of connectives used in uniting 
clauses of unequal rank, and give five of each class. 

(13) Define a simple sentence, Write a simple sentence 
that is (a) dtclaratiie ; {b) interrogative; (r) imperative. 

(14) "Write in sentence form, with the best arrangement 
of parts, the sentential elements of exam.ple 2. Art. 18. 

(15) Define the complex sentence, and give five examples. 

(lij) Write complex sentences as follows: {ci) two, one of 
which has an adjective clause and the other an adverbial 
clause ; {fi) one, having a noun clause for its subject; 
(r) three, having connectives as follows: (a) a subordina- 
tiD^r conjunction, (/J) a conjunctive adverb, (y) a relative 
pronoun. 



§ 15 GRAMMAR. 3 

(17) Unite each of the following groups of separate state- 
ments into complex sentences: 

(a) The shadow of the earth upon the moon is circular. Men have 
sailed around the earth. The earth is round like a ball. 

(d) He was idle and careless. He lost his position. He was proved 
to be dishonest. 

{c) The buds begin to swell. The birds come from the south. 
Spring has arrived. We may be certain of the fact. 

(18) Define the compound sentence, and write two such 
sentences. 

(19) What is meant in grammar by the analysis of a 
sentence ? 

(20) How are the following sentential elements indicated 
in diagram according to the plan explained in the Instruction 
Paper? {a) the subject; {b) the predicate ; {c) the predicate 
noun; (^) the object noun or pronoun; {e) an adjective 
modifying directly. 

(21) How are the following indicated in diagram? — (/) an 
adverbial modifier; {g) a connective; {Ji) a predicate adjec- 
tive; {i) an adjective or an adverbial phrase; (/) a con- 
junction; {k) a conjunctive adverb or a relative pronoun; 
(/) an independent element. 

(22) Analyze the following sentences: 

{a) The old gentleman followed the visitor to the gate. 
{b) Influence and respect are the courtesies paid by the world to 
personal worth and ability. 

(23) Write a complex sentence of not less than twelve 
words, and analyze it by means of a diagram. 

(24) Analyze: 

And the night shall be filled with music, 

And the cares that infest the day 
Shall fold their tents, like the Arabs, 

And as silently steal away. 

(25) Analyze : 

Richard, the Lion-Hearted, was imprisoned for a long time by the 
Sultan of Turkey. 



GRAMMAR, 

(PART 3.) 



(1) By mapping, indicate the plan of the following sen- 
tences: 

(a) This is the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 

(d) The earth has one moon, but the planet Jupiter has four such 
attendants. 

(c) All the plays and poems that Shakespeare wrote contain only 
about fifteen thousand different words, and the Old Testament has five 
thousand six hundred and forty-two different words. 

(2) Write and map sentences as follows: (a) a compound 
sentence with one subordinate clause modifier; {I?) a com- 
plex sentence with two clause modifiers. 

(3) Construct sentences answering to the following: 

(4) Write two simple sentences. Write and map (a) two 
complex sentences, the maps of which shall be imlike ; (/;) two 
compound sentences that shall each contain two or more 
subordinate clause modifiers. 

(5) Analyze by mapping and by detailed diagram the fol- 
lowing sentence: 

'Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers, and I linger on the shore, 
And tlie individual withers, and the world is more and more. 

(G) Analyze and map example 2, Art. 2*S, 

§1G 

i.'oi- nolic,. (,f tlie copyrii^^lit, sec- p;i.uc imincdiatoly t'ollowin,"^ tlu- tilU- u:\\iL\ 



2 (GRAMMAR. g KJ 

(I) (live the various classes of common nouns, and write 
sentences containing underscored examples of each class. 

(8) Arrange in classes all the nouns that occur in tlie fol- 
lowing quotation : 

I haven't the least idea where Tom was born ; I do not know even the 
time of his birth. His feline parents must have been neglectful of their 
obligation to provide for his helplessness, to watch over his youth, and 
to care f(^r his training. Clearly, they were ignorant of that well known 
postulate of political economy that every child has a natural right to be 
born under favorable circumstances or not to be compelled to be born 
at all. I say this because one winter morning on my way to business 
Tom hailed me from the doubtful shelter of an old barn. His hail was 
plaintive and pitiful; it was a cry that told of hunger and cold, of suf- 
fering and neglect, and of a deep and firmly rooted dissatisfaction with 
existing conditions. 

(D) Write sentences containing imderscored nouns used 
as follows: (<?) a sentence containing nouns that are the 
names of tilings rational^ but no other nouns ; {U) a. sentence 
containing vcj'bal nouns ^ and no others ; (r) a sentence con- 
taining abstract nouns that are not verbal, and no others. 

(10) Make a list of twenty collective nouns. 

(II) Explain carefully why some nouns are called abstract; 
also, why some are called rational. 

(12) In what sense are verbal nouns really abstract / 

(13) Giveexamplesof proper nouns used as common nouns. 

(14) Explain fully what is meant by inflection, and give 
illustrations. 

(lo) Mention, and illustrate in sentences, the various 
inflections of nouns. 

(1(3) Tell what parts of speech are inflected, and the 
special names given to their inflections. 

(IT) Give what is required in examples 4 and 5 of Art. 14. 

(18) Give, and as far as possible illustrate, by examples 
not found in the Instruction Paper, the general rule and the 
special rules for pluralizing nouns. 



§ IC) GRAMMAR. 3 

(ID) Explain the distinction that slioiild "be made in 
the use of the following pairs of words, and use them 
properly in sentences: {a) genders-sex ; {b) masculine— 
male ; {c) femmine— female. 

(20) Explain and illustrate how gender is indicated: 
{a) hj form ; {b) hy use or context. 

(21) Give what is required in example 4, Art. 23« 

(22) Define case,, and explain how the word declension 
came to be used in grammar. 

(23) Explain the distinction in use that should usually 
be made between the possessive case, and the phrase form 
with the preposition of; as, fohn's hat, the hat of fohn ; 
the ocean's tides., the tides of the ocean, 

(24) Mention, and illustrate in sentences, the principal 
functions of the nominative case. 

(25) By means of diagrams, show the difference between 
2i factitive objective and an appositive objective. 



GRAMMAR, 

(PART 4.) 



fl) Analyze by diagram the following* sentence: 
He seemed a feeble, inoffensive old man, and they gave him much 
attention, 

(2) Construct a table of the noun, showing its classes and 
subclasses, with illustrations. 

(3) Parse the nouns in the following: 

Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle 
Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime ? 

(4) Write two sentences each containing underscored 
nouns that are independent by pleonasm. 

(5) Explain the adjunctive^ appositive^ and predicative 
uses of the adjective. Illustrate each by words underscored 
in sentences. 

(6) Give the divisions of adjectives with respect io form. 
Illustrate. 

(7) How are compound adjectives classified with refer- 
ence to the elements that compose them .? Illustrate. 

(8) Mention the classes of pronominal adjectives, and 
give examples. 

(9) Write ten adjectives that do not admit of comparison. 

1m)|- notice of the r()i)vi ij^lit, sec \y.\^^i iiiiinodiali-l v t'oUowin^^ the tit]c puKC. 



2 GRAMMAR. § 17 

(10) Give what is required in examples 1 and 2, Art. 7. 

(11) Define and illustrate: (c?) the positive degree oi 2in 
adjective; {h) the comparative degree ; {c) the superlative 
degree. 

(12) Give the rules for comparing adjectives, and illus- 
trate each rule. 

(13) Find ten adjectives of two syllables each that may- 
be compared by the suffixes er and est. 

(14) Compare five of the most commonly used adjectives 
of irregular comparison. 

(15) State how adjectives are parsed, and illustrate by 
parsing the adjectives in the following sentence: 

The v\-ay was long, the wind was cold. 

The minstrel was infirm and old; 
His withered cheek and tresses gray 

Seemed to have known a better day. 

(IG) Answer the requirement made in the exercise, Art. 
41, but do not give tl:e explanation. 

(17) Find suitable modifiers, not given in the Instruction 
Paper, of the adjective careless ^ as follows: {a) five words ; 
[b) fiYQ phrases ; (c) five clauses. 

(18) Explain and illustrate what is meant by the antece- 
dent of a pronoun.' 

(10) ^lention the nominative singular and plural of all 
the simple personal pronouns. 

(20) Analyze the following sentences by means of 
diagrams, and indicate which clauses are restrictive and 
which coordinating : 

Our guide, who was very sick, remained behind at the inn until we 
returned. 

The house that we bought was less valuable than that in which we 
formerly lived, which was very large. 



§ 17 GRAMMAR. 3 

(21) Construct a sentence containing a double relative, 
and analyze it by means of a diagram. 

(22) Use, in sentences, five of the indefinite pronouns. 

(23) Decline the pronouns / and he. 

(24) State the respect in which the following definition is 
faulty : A pronoun is a zvord used instead of a noun. 

(25) Mention and classify the pronouns in the following; 

{a) Fling our doors wide. All, all, not one, but all; 

Not only he, but by my mother's soul, 
Whatever man lies wounded, friend or foe, 

Shall enter if he will. 
(Ji) Neither has aught that he can call his own, 

Yet each has much that he would not lose. 



GRAMMAR. 

(PART 5.) 



(1) Explain briefly and illustrate in what sense every verb 
expresses action of some kind. 

(2) Arrange a series of ten verbs graded from active to 
neuter, and rise as few of those given in the Instruction 
Paper, Art. 3, as possible. 

(3) Write two sentences in each of which shall occur a 
verb used as in the sentences that are analyzed in Art. 4 ; 
put your sentences in diagram. 

(4) Analyze, by means of diagram, example 11, Art. 4. 

(5) Explain and illustrate the meaning of transitive and 
intransitive as applied to verbs. 

(6) What are meant by the active and the passive forma 
of transitive verbs ? Illustrate by examples. 

(7) Write two sentences in each of which shall occur the- 
following four elements: a subject, a verb, a direct object, 
and an indirect object. Change the sentences from the 
active to the passive construction. 

(8) What inflections have verbs ? Define conjugation. 

(9) Define mode; name the modes; illustrate each by a 
sentence. 

(10) Write five sentences containing verbs in the sub 
junctive mode. 

§18 

I'^or iiolic-c of llic c()])yrijj:-lit, sec paije iniincdialel y followinv;- llic title I'a.i^e. 



2 GRAMMAR. § 18 

(11) Explain, with illustrations, why the infinitive mode 
is so called. 

(1'2) Which modes are determined by the use or pur- 
pose of the entire sentence or clause in which they occur ? 
AVhich modes may be known from the use or form of the 
verb alone ? Illustrate. 

(13) How many forms are there for the infinitive of 
intransitive verbs } How many for transitive verbs ? Illus- 
trate. 

(14) Show by means of illustrations what elements may 
be associated with the infinitive. • 

(15) What functions may the infinitive have? Give 
illustrations. 

(IG) Give what is required in example 10, Art. 23. 

(IT) Analyze the following sentence: 

The poor old man, tired by his day's labor, thought that his own 
home was the most comfortable spot to be found in the world. 

(IS) Give, with illustrations, the various forms of 7'^r<^rt'/y 
— simple and compound. 

(19) Classify and explain the use of the verbals that 
occur in examples 4, 5, and G, Art. 25. 

(•20) Define tense, and give the primary tenses, with 
examples. 

(•21) Give verb phrases as follows: {a) three that denote 
action indefinite with respect to time; {b) three that denote 
progressive action — present, past, and future; three that 
denote perfected or completed action — present, past, and 
future. 

(•2^2) Give verb phrases to illustrate the tenses of what is 
called the potential mode. 

(•23) Tell the exact function of each verbal clement in 
the following sentences: (^?) / should be going, (b) They 
have been seen. 



18 



GRAMMAR. 



(24) Name the mode and the tense of each verb in 
example 4, Art. 36. 

(25) What time periods are covered by the three primary 
tenses ? Give illustrations. 

(26) Make a diagram showing the function of each ele- 
ment in a verb phrase in the present perfect progressive, 
indicative of the verb sing. 



ii 



r 

I 



GRAMMAR, 

(PART 6.) 



(1) Explain the extent to which the tense forms of the 
different modes are significant of time. 

(2) What times are really denoted by the tense forms in 
the following sentences ? Mention the tense-of each verb. 

I should be glad to have you come. Should he call, tell him that we 
are coming. Were I to go with him, I should not be here. 

(3) Explain and illustrate the meaning of the following 
statement : " Finite verbs must agree with their subjects in 
number and person. " 

(4) Define and illustrate (a) a regular verb ; {U) an irregu- 
lar verb. 

(5) Give the principal parts of ring, sing, do, go, see, comc^ 
swim, drink, write, think. 

(6) Explain why the principal parts of verbs are 
important. 

(7) Under what circumstances is a verb redundant? 
Give five examples, with principal parts. 

(8) Explain what is meant by the new conjugation, and 
why it is so named. 

(9) What is the difference between the conjugation of a 
verb and a synopsis of it ? 

(10) Give what is required in example 10, Art. 11, 

§ 19 

For notice of the copyrij^j^lit, see p.'iv;e immediately fnilowiny tlie title j^atje. 



GRAMMAR. § 10 

(11) AViilu ii synopsis of drink in the iirsL person singular 
of all the tenses of the indicative. 

(1"^) Write a synopsis of sec in the passive fotm of all the 
tenses of the indicative mode. 

(13) Analyze by diagram the following sentence : 

Do not let him leave before he has entirely finished his work for the 
day. 

(14) Explain the difference in the meaning of shall and 
1^'ill in the first, from that of the same words in the second, 
of the following sentences : 

I shall drown and nobody will help me. 
I will drown and nobody shall help me. 

(15) Analyze the following sentence and parse its verbs : 

Caesar said to me, " Darest thou, Cassius, now leap in with me into 
this angry flood, and swim to yonder point ?" 

(16) In the manner shown in Art. 15, analyze the fol- 
lowing : 

They were working. He should be punished. They might have 
been seen. (Do the work neatly.) 

(17) As shown in Art. 17, parse example T, Art. 18. 

(18) Give sentences in which words that ordinarily are of 
the following parts of speech, are used as adverbs : {a) a 
noun ; {b) an adjective ; {c) a verb ; {d) o. preposition. 

(10) ^Mention the classes, according to nse, of adverbs, 
and define and illustrate each class. 

(20) Write three sentences containing modal adverbs. 

('21) Write two sentences containing conjunctive adverbs, 
and then two more sentences containing the same words used 
as simple adverbs. 

(2*2) Mention the principal respofisives^ and explain the 
manner in which they are used. 

(23) Describe the functions of the preposition ; and, 
illustrating by examples, tell the various kinds of objects it 
mav have. 



§ llj GRAMMAR. 3 

(M) Kxplaiii the dilfcreiice between a coordinating and 
a subordinating conjunction. Give the classes of the former, 
and examples of each class* 

(25) Analyze the following sentences^ but do not dismem- 
ber them. 

(a) There in fancy comes Iny mother, as she tised to years agone, 
To survey her infant sleepers ere she left them till the dawn. 

{^) I can see her bending o'er me as I listen to the strain 

That is played upon the shingles by the patter of the rain. 



Punctuation and Capitalization. 



(1) Define punctuation and give the divisions of the 
subject. 

(2) Explain what is meant by etymological piinctnation, 
and give ten examples illustrating different cases of this kind 
of punctuation. 

(3) Make a clear distinction between phrases and clauses, 
and construct a sentence containing two or more of each of 
these elements. 

(4) Explain why it will always be impossible to reduce 
punctuation to an exact science, such that, if different persons 
understand it, they will punctuate the same matter in the 
same way. 

(5) Give three important general principles that influence 
punctuation. 

(6) What is the probable origin of the mark of interroga- 
tion ? of the mark of exclamation ? 

(7) Upon what three general principles do most uses of the 
comma depend ? Illustrate each. 

(8) Arrange the following sentences so that no punctua- 
tion is required besides the mark at the end of each, and tell 
in which cases the sense is changed by the transposition : 

(^a) By all means, now, we should take advantage of our opportunity. 
{b) Therefore, frankly, and witliont reservation, I shall tell you the 
story. 

§20 

For notice of Hie copyi-iirlil, se(> pas^c imniediritely followiiii;- tlie title ]i:i.cfe. 



'4 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. §20 

(i) Really, was I, on that occasion, in trusting him so fully, making 
another serious blunder ? 

(//) Smiled, then, well pleased, the aged man. 

{e) Impatiently, then, vultures, circling overhead, awaited their 
prey. 

(9) Rearrange the following- sentences so that two commas 
will be needed to punctuate each properly : 

{(j) When differently used, parenthetical elements generally require 
to be punctuated differently. 

{d) After all, it is mind that does the most important work of the 
world. 

(c) An expression is restrictive when it modifies in the manner of 
an ordinary adjective or adverb. 

(^) With all his train of attendant planets and their satellites, the 
sun is a mere sp&ck or mote in the abyss of space. 

(e) Last year, during the month of June, we went, for the benefit of 
our health, -fishing in the Adirondacks. 

(10) Rearrange, if necessary^, and punctuate the follow- 
ing sentences in such way that the meaning shall not be 
uncertain : 

(a) The president said the schoolmaster is the greatest power for 
good in the country, 

{d) He was really wise however foolish notwithstanding he may 
often have seemed. 

(c) The days were very dark however clear though the skies always 
were. 

(d) All that long cold arctic winter day was scarcely more endur- 
able than the equally long cheerless night. 

(e) In speaking of good judges of the moral quality of action very 
often confuse real good with mere polic}'. 

(11) Quote (not from the Instruction Paper) or construct 
two sentences illustrating each of the following rules: rule 
IV, Art. 31 ; rule V, Art. 34; and rule VI, Art. 38. 

(12) Transpose, if necessary^, and properly punctuate the 
following, so that all ambiguity may be removed : 

(a) The boy enlisted for the war influenced by a love for fighting 
which his father greatly disapproved. 

(3) The boy influenced by an instinct for roving enlisted for the 
war that his father greatly disapproved. 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 3 

(13) Punctuate the following correctly and refer to the 
rules governing, in each case, the punctuation : 

(a) Why this is all wrong no one can clearly explain. 

(d) Why this is all wrong he remarked speaking softly to himself. 

(c) Any man that expects all of his fellow men to be honest and just 
will be uniformly disappointed. 

(d) Wise in thought but always impulsive and foolish in action he 
never succeeded in his dealings with men. 

{e) Herodotus the father of history seems to have been a very cred- 
ulous old gentleman for he retails in all seriousness and with manifest 
belief the most absurd stories and the merest myths. 

(14) Illustrate by sentences properly punctuated each of 
the five cases under rule XIII, Art. 61. 

(15) Punctuate the following in two ways, making it first 
an apology, and, again, a serious accusation : 

I said that the gentleman was guilty of falsehood it is true and I am 
very sorry for it. 

(16) Construct a sentence exemplifying rule XV, Art. 
62 ; also a sentence exemplifying rule XV, Art. 64, 

(17) Punctuate the following sentences and give the rules 
authorizing your punctuation : 

(a) Magellan having passed through the strait now called by his 
name continued his voyage until he had accomplished what at that 
time was regarded as a remarkable feat that of sailing entirely around 
the world. 

(d) Economy is no disgrace for it is better to live on a little than to 
outlive a great deal. 

(c) For the position to which he had been chosen he was equipped 
in the following important particulars he was in every respect truthful 
he was absolutely scrupulously honest he was possessed of a fine edu- 
cation and by long training and much travel he had perfected a fine 
strain of social qualities. 

(18) Insert suitable marks of punctuation instead of the 
carets, and refer to the rules that guide you in doing so: 

Even under the most favorable circumstances .he that is carefully 
and thoroughly prepared is often likely to find examinations very 
formidable .for .in every question .there is an element of surprise and 



4 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20 

su«l<,knncss that frequently unbalances .unci often paralyzes .the men- 
tal faeulties. 

The most precious of all possessions is power over ourselves .power 
to withstand trial .to bear suffering .to front danger .power over 
pleasure and pain .power to follow our convictions however resisted 
by menace and scorn .power of calm reliance in scenes of darkness 
and storm. 

(I'J) Construct sentences that shall, by their punctuation, 
illustrate rule XXI and rule XXII, Arts. 73 and 75. 

(2()) Punctuate the following : 

(a) Macaulay in his celebrated essay on Lord Clive says Yet the 
victories of Cortez were gained over savages who had no letters who 
were ignorant of the use of metals who had not broken in a single ani- 
mal to labor who wielded no better w^eapons than those which could 
be made out of sticks flints and fish-bones who regarded a horse- 
soldier as a monster half man and half beast who took a harquebusier 
for a sorcerer able to scatter the thunder and lightning of the skies. 

(d) We find in the midst of a brilliant description by Macaulay the 
following striking passage A succession of revolutions a disorgan- 
ized administration the natives pillaged yet the Company not 
enriched every fleet bringing back fortunate adventurers who were 
able to purchase manors and to build stately dwellings yet bringing 
back also alarming ac<;ounts of the financial prospects of the govern- 
ment war on the frontiers disaffection in the army the national 
character disgraced by excesses resembling those of Verres and 
Pizarro such was the spectacle that dismayed those who were con- 
versant with Indian affairs. 

(21) In accordance with Arts. 66 and 81, write and 
punctuate a heading and salutation for a letter; that is, 
everything as far as the "body," or beginning. 

(2*2) Give examples illustrating five different uses of the 
dash and say what rule applies to each case. 

(23) Write and properly capitalize five titles of books, 
essays, or poems. Let each title consist of several words, as 
in the examples given in Arts. 158 and 159, 

(24) Copy the following, inserting appropriate capitals, 
marks of punctuation, and Italics: 



§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 5 

(a) Sir Roger L' Estrange during the reigns of Charles II and 
James VII enjoyed great notoriety as an occasional political writer he 
is known also as a translator having produced versions of Esops fables 
Senecas morals Ciceros offices Erasmus's colloquies Quevedos visions 
and the works of Josephus, 

(d) Horologe hora hour legein to speak is from two Greek words 
signifying together that which tells the hour a sun dial a clock a time- 
piece. 

(c) Abraham Lincoln the great emancipator was shot at Fords 
theater Washington D C Friday night April 14 1865. 

(25) Quote or construct sentences containing elements 
that exemplify the following punctuation : 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING, 

(PART 1.) 



WHOLESALE FEOIIR BUSII^ESS. 



PRACTICE SET. 

The following transactions are to be worked out by you on 
Journal and Ledger paper, using the best style of penman- 
ship at your command. Let the writing and figures be small 
and without shade. Be very careful with the work and 
endeavor to produce accurate results. Fill out such papers 
and blanks as directed, but no others, and receive such 
papers as you are told to receive, treating them according to 
the directions given with similar transactions in the model 
set, unless special directions are given with the transaction. 

In actual business you would give and receive papers with 
every such transaction, but in this work the amount of sta- 
tionery which you have is so limited that you cannot do this; 
therefore, you will actually make out only such papers as 
directed, and will consider that you have made the others, 
treating the entries the same as though the papers were given 
and received. 

In making all entries be sure and give a full and complete 
explanation of the transaction. Cash sales need not be item- 
ized, because there is no future to them ; you have the money 

§27 

For notice of the copyrig-ht, see jnigc iinmedijilely following the title page. 



2 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 27 

and the biu'cr the goods. Sales on account must be fully 
itemized, because if it becomes necessan- to bring action 
against the buyer for payment, you will be required to fur- 
nish an itemized statement of the goods sold; othenvise, the 
case would be dismissed. 

All things bought to sell again come under the head of 
Merchandise. 

All things bought to use up, such as labor, rent, freight, 
coal, wood, gas. stamps, cartage, etc., come under Expenses 
and are charged to that account. In working these trans- 
actions be careful to keep your Cash account correctly; 
the Ledger and Banking- Ledger balances should exactly 
agree. Keep also a memorandum of the amount of each 
kind and grade of goods which you deal in, so that you 
can tell exactly at any time how much of each kind you have 
bought and sold and how much remains on hand. In actual 
business this is not done and would be unnecessary, for then 
we have the goods and can ascertain, by taking an inventory, 
how much we have on hand. 

The following transactions, worked through the Journal and 
Ledger, should give certain results for the Trial Balance, 
Statement of Resources and Liabilities, Losses and Gains. 
Try to produce these results ; you will be able to do this if you 
carefully follow directions and are accurate in figuring and 
handling the items and amounts used in the work. 



PRICE LIST. 

Kind. Cost Price. Selling Price. 

XX Flour, 83. -20 -M.-:^o 

Rye ♦* 2.55 3.60 

Ex. " 3.90 4.95 

W. F. *' 4.55 5.60 

Super. ** 2.90 3.95 

Genesee *' 2.80 3.85 

Hamilton ** 3.00 4.05 

Oatmeal, 8.40 9.45 

Cornmeal, 2.05 3.10 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

TRANSACTIONS. 

January 1, 1896. 
Commence business with a cash investment of $5000. 
Fill out a deposit slip. Fill out a signature slip. 



Pay your store and office rent for one month in advance, 
by giving O. T. Willis a check for 1150. Get receipt. 



Buy of J. D. Wallace invoice of merchandise, for cash. 



20 bbl. 


XX Flour, 




3.20, 


25 " 


Cornmeal, 




2.05, 


20 '' 


Hamilton Flour, 


3.00, 


30 '* 


Rye 


ii 


2.55, 


15 " 


Extra 


(( 


3.90, 


15 " 


W. F. 


(( 


4.55, 


20 " 


Super. 


(C 


2.90, 


10 " 


Oatmeal, 




8.40. 



Give check. Receive invoice. Hereafter get cost price 
from Price List. 

3 

Sell to R. B. Hall, for his check, 

20 bbh XX Flour, 4.25, 

25 " Cornmeal, 3.10. 
Receive check. Give receipted bill. Hereafter get selling 

price from Price List. 

4 

Buy of J. A. Clark, on account, 

10 bbl. XX Flour, 
20 " Cornmeal, 
10 " Rye Flour, 
25 " Extra " 

Hereafter you will not receive an invoice when you buy 
goods, but you must keep an account of the amount of each 
kind of goods bought and sold, that you can at any time 
tell just how much you have on hand. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. g 27 



Sell to W. E. Haywood, on account, 

10 bbl. Hamilton Flour, 
10 " Super. 
5 " Oatmeal. 

Give bill. 

7 

Pay W. L. Hill cash, for printing stationery, $25. 
Give check. Get a receipt. 



Buy of John Hayden, on your note at 10 days (days of grace 
will not be allowed in any transaction), 
25 bbl. W. F. Flour, 
18 " Extra '* 
Give note. 

9 

Give J. A. Clark $100, on account. 

10 

Sell F. P. Gaynor, on account, 

13 bbl. Rye Flour, 
7 ' ' Cornmeal. 
Give bill. 

11 

Receive of W. E. Haywood $75, on account. 
Receive check. 

13 

Sell M. F. Smith, on account, 

5 bbl. Oatmeal, 

9 " Hamilton Flour. 
Give bill. 

14 

Bought of Brown & Warren, for cash, 

12 bbl. XX Flour, 

19 " W. F. " 
Hereafter you will not give checks unless told to; but be 
sure to enter in the Banking Ledger all cash paid out. 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



15 



Sell W. E. Haywood, on account, 

10 bbl. Super. Flour, 

17 " Extra " 
Give bill. 

16 

Pay J. B. Waite freight bills, from Jan. 1 to date, l?2.75. 

17 

Buy of H. R. Barber, on your note at 5 days, 
35 bbl. Cornmeal, 
30 " Rye Flour. 
Give note. 

18 

Pay John Hayden your note of Jan. 8, 1896, 1183.95. 
Receive back your note, receipted; mark it "paid," in 
your B. B. 

20 

W. E. Haywood paid, on account, $75. 
Receive check. Endorse and deposit all checks on hand. 
Make out deposit slip and enter in Banking Ledger. Here- 
after you will not receive checks unless told to. 

21 



Sell E. W. Taylor, on account, 

14 bbl. Rye Flour, 
9 " Cornmeal. 
You will make no more bills unless told to. 

22 



Pay H. R. Barber, for your note of Jan. 17, 1896, $148.25 
Get your note back, receipted. 

23 

Pay J. A. Clark, on account, $50. 

24 



Buy of Brown & Warren, on account, 
25 bbl. Hamilton Flour, 
15 " Super. 

27 

Receive of M. F. Smith, on account, $50. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 27 

28 



Sell to C. A. Sargent, on account, 

25 bbl. W. F. Flour, 

25 " Rye 

15 " Cornmeal, 

10 " Hamilton Flour. 

20 '' Extra ** 

28 



Sell to G. F. Heustis, on account, 

12 bbl. W. F. Flour, 
II " XX 
9 " Rye 

11 " Extra '* 

12 " Cornmeal. 



20 



Sell to G. F. Roberts, for cash, 

10 bbl. Extra Flour, 
15 " Super. *' 
IG " Hamilton '' 

5 " W. F. 
12 " Cornmeal. 



29 



Pay Brown & Warren, in full of account, ^118.50. 
29 



Sell L. M. Foskett, on account, 

17 bbl. W. F. Flour, 
11 " XX 
9 " Rve 



30 



Receive of W= E. Haywood cash, in full of account, 
$100.90. 

Deposit all checks on hand. Now make the practice sheet 
of ruling, and rule up Journal; post up books; compare 
Banking Ledger and Cash account; take Trial Balance; 
make out a Statement; close Ledger; rule up accounts and 
bring down balances; balance Banking Ledger. Clean up 



§ 27 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 1 

your books if there are any spots, finger or peneil marks on 
them. Carefully look your work over to .see if you ean find 
errors, periods left out, ete. ; if so, correet them. Carefully 
review the Instruction Paper, and write your answers to 
the questions. Then send us for correction all your books 
and papers of this set. While these are away, study on the 
work of the next model set, and if you thoroughly understand 
it, you may go on with the next set of transactions; but 
before going on we would prefer that you wait for the work 
on these transactions to be returned. 



QUESTIONS. 

(1) What is bookkeeping ? 

(2) Name the styles of bookkeeping. 

(3) What are the two main principles of bookkeeping ? 

(4) What is a Cash account ? 

(5) Which side of the Cash account should be the larger ? 

(6) What does the balance show ? 

(7) What is merchandise ? 

(8) To what class of accounts does the Merchandise 
account belong ? 

(9) Should any fractional part of a cent ever be repre- 
sented in book entries ? 

(10) What is expense ? 

(11) What is an opening entry? 

(12) What is a deposit ? 

(13) What is a signature book or slip ? 

(14) What is a check ? 

(15) How would you endorse a check for deposit ? 

(16) What is a Banking Ledger, and what is its use ^ 

(17) Which side of this book should be the larger, if 
either ? 



8 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. §2? 

(18) If all your cash is on deposit, what must this balance 
agree with ? 

(19) What is a receipt ? 

(20) What is a bill or invoice ( 

(21) What do you understand by the term posting? 

(22) In case you should omit the posting of a debit item, 
what effect will it have on the Trial Balance ? 

(23) If a debit item of $100 should be posted to the credit 
side of the Ledge -^j what effect would it have on the Trial 
Balance ? 

(24) What is a note ? 

(25) What is a joint note ? 

(26) What is a Bills- Payable account ? 

(27) What is the Loss and Gain account ? 

(28) The difference between the two sides shows what ? 

(29) How do you take a Trial Balance ? If the two sides 
do not add up the same, what must be done ? 

(30) What is a statement of a business ? 

(31) What is a resource ? What is a liability ? 

(32) What is a loss ? What is a gain ? 

(33) If the resources are the larger, what does the differ- 
ence show ? 

(34) If the liabilities are the larger, what does the differ- 
ence show ? 

(35) If the sum of the gains is larger than the sum of the 
losses, what does the difference show ? 

(36) What do you understand by closing a set of books ? 

(37) What account do the speculative accounts close to ? 
What the non-speculative ? 

(38) What account does Loss and Gain account close to ? 

(39) What is meant by closing an account ? 

(40) What is a Balance of Balances ? 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

(PART 2.) 



aHOCERY BUSIlSrESS. 




PRACTICE 


SET. 




PRICE LIST. 


Kinds. 


Cost Price. 


Selling Price, 


Salt, 


$ .93 


^ $ 1.14 


Pork, 


9.75 


10.80 


Apples, 


2.13 


2.34 


Barley, 


.63 


.84 


Flour, 


5.75 


6.80 


Beef, 


6.35 


7.40 


Fish, 


12.40 


13.45 


Beans, 


.93 


1.14 



TRANSACTIONS. 

Open your books with the Resources and Liabilities of the 
last business, by writing" an opening entry in your Journal. 
Use the Cash Book for all cash transactions. Enter the 
balance of Cash on hand on the debit side. See model set. 
There are no papers to receive in this set. 

g 28 

For notice of tlie copyrij,^lit, sen- i)a,ui' ini mediately followin.i,^ the title pai^e 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. §28 



1 



Pay O. 'J\ Willis one month's rent, ^150. 

Special Notice. — Keep this ride: Ahvays enter all cash 
received on the debit, or left-Jiand^ side of the Cash Book, 
and always enter all cash paid out on the credit sidcy or 
right-hand side ^ of the book. There are no exceptions to this 
rule. Unless told^ in your work following., to give out checks, 
do not give them, but always make an entry in your Banking 
Ledger for them. 



3 



Buy of Brown & Warren, on account, 
10 bbl. Salt, 
10 '' Pork, 
75 " Apples, 
200 bu. Barley. 

4 

Buy 10 bbl. Salt .93 of J. A. Clark, for cash. 

5 

Sell 5 bbl. Pork 10.80 to M. F. Smith, for cash. 

G 

Sell 5 bbl. Apples 2.34 to E. W. Wilson, for cash. 

Buy 10 bbl. Flour 5.75 of J. A. Clark, for cash. 

8 

Sell 25 bu. Barley .84 to M. F. Smith, on account. 

10 

Buy 15 bbl. Beef 6.35 of Brown & Warren, for cash. 

11 

Sell 10 bbl. Salt 1.14 to L. M. Foskett, for cash. 

11 

Pay W. L. Hill, for printing, $7.50. 

13 

Receive cash of F. P. Gaynor, on account, $25. 



§ 28 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



14 



Buy of H. R. Barber, for cash, 

10 bbl. Fish, 
80^ bu. Beans. 

15 



Sell 20 bu. Barley .84 to G. F. Heustis, for cash. 

17 

Sell 5 bbl. Flour 6.80 to M. F. Smith, for cash. 

18 

Pay M. A. Mann, for repairing lock, .50. 
Deposit all checks. 

19 

Buy of J. D. Wallace, for your note at 5 days, without 
interest, the following invoice of Mdse. : 
15 bbl. Flour, 
5 " Pork, 
5 *' Fish. 

20 



Sell 20 bbl. Apples 2.34 to F. P. Gaynor, for cash. 

21 

Pay J. A. Clark, in full of account to date, 146. 

22 

Sell to E. W. Taylor 30 bu. Barley .84, on account. 

24 

Pay J. D. Wallace, for your note at 5 days, dated Feb. 19. 
1896, 1197. 

25 

Receive cash of C. A. Sargent, on account, 1216. 

-26 

Sell to L. M. Foskett, for cash, 

63 bu. Barley, 
40 ** Beans, 
7 bbl. Beef, 
10 ♦* Apples. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 2^ 



2: 



Sell to E. W. Taylor, for cash, 

10 bbl. Salt, 
10 " Pork, 
15 " Flour, 
20 " Apples. 

27 

Sell to M. F. Smith, for cash, 

G2 bu. Barley, 
40 " Beans, 
15 bbl. Fish, 
10 " Apples. 

2S 

Pay J. B. Waite, freight bills for the month, 67.50. 

28 

Sell C. A. Sargent, for cash, 

10 bbl. Apples, 
5 " Flour, 
8 " Beef. 

28 



Pay Brown & Warren, on account, $325. 

28 

Receive of F. P. Gaynor, in full of account, 643. 50. 

Balance your Cash Book and Banking Ledger. The bal- 
ance on hand shown by each should agree. Rule up these 
books, also the Journal. Post from both books to the 
Ledger; take Trial Balance, carrying- the balance of Cash on 
hand direct to it from the Cash Book. Take inventories. 
Make out a Statement of the business, close the Ledger, 
rule it up and bring down balances; take Balance of Bal- 
ances; answer the questions on the Question Paper and send 
in your work for correction. 

Special Notice. — After you have fi7iisJied postings and 
ivhile taking the Trial Balanee, make out statements of 
account for each of your customer::, {See form in model set.) 



§ 28 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 5 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) What is a Cash Book ? 

(2) Is it necessary to keep a Cash account in the Ledger 
when we are using a Cash Book ? 

(3) Which side of the Cash Book is called the debit side ? 

(4) On which side do we enter all money paid out ? 

(5) Which side of this book should be the larger ? 

(6) If it should not be, what is the trouble ? 

(7) What does the difference between the two sides 
show ? 

(8) How is this amount verified ? 

(9) How often should this test be made ? 

(10) Is it necessary to close the Cash Book to make this 
test ? 

(11) What is meant by closing the Cash Book ? 

(12) When you have filled a page of the Cash Book, what 
do you do then ? 

(13) How do you post from the Cash Book ? 

(14) If you have no Cash account in the Ledger, how do 
you get the Cash into the Trial Balance ? 

(15) If you keep a Journal in connection with the Cash 
Book, what entries go in the Journal ? 

(16) Does keeping of a Cash Book make the work of 
keeping the same amount of business transactions, more or 
less? 

(17) Which would you rather keep, the Cash Book or the 
Cash account in the Ledger ? Why ? 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING 

(PART 8.) 



FURNITURE BUSII^ESS. 





PRACTICE SET. 




PRICE 


LIST. 




Kinds. 


Cost Price. 


Selling Price 


No. 60 Sideboards, 


$10.15 


111.20 




' 90 Ext. Tables, 


7.00 


8.50 




* 80 Center " 


3.00 


3.50 




* 48 Dressers, 


33.50 


35.00 




* 48 Commodes, 


6.15 


7.20 




' 48 Bedsteads, 


10.00 


11.50 




* 48 Chiffoniers, 


11.50 


13.50 




* 144 Sideboards, 


12.50 


14.00 




* 84 Oak Chairs, per set, 6.15 


7.20 




* 99 S. P. Mattresses, 


3.25 


3.75 


** 10 6-ft. Tables, 


4.00 


4.75 


Farmers' Desks, 


3.00 


3.75 


Ex. B. W. Bedsteads, 


7.50 


8.25 


No. 180 C. Dressers, 


6.75 


8.15 


Cane Chairs, 


3.25 


3.75 


§ 


29 




)r 


lotice of the copyrij^ht, see paij:e 


niniediatcly folic 


)\ving- the title pag-e. 



8 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 29 

TRAXSACTIOXS. 

March 2, 1896. 
Open your books with the Resources and Liabilities of the 
last business, making your opening entry in the Journal. 

Pav O. T. Willis one month's rent, $150. 



Buy of J. A. Clark, on account, 

6 No. 60 Sideboards, 
10 " 90 Ext. Tables, 
25 ** SO Center '* 
12 Farmers' Desks. 



B'jy of Brown 6c Warren, for cash, 

12 No. 48 Dressers, 
12 •' 48 Commodes, 
12 " 4S Bedsteads, 
15 •' 4S Chiffoniers. 

Less 10^. 

3 

Sell to C. A. Sargent, for cash, 

1 No. 60 Sideboard. 



Sell to M. F. Smith, on account, 

3 No. 80 Center Tat)lea 



Buy of J. A. Clark, for your joint note at 5 days, with 
C. W'. Church, 

12 No. 144 Sideboards. 
Give joint note. 

6 

Sell to G. F, Heustis, for his note at 10 days, 

4 Farmers* Desks, 

5 No. 80 Center Tables. 
Receive note. 



§ 29 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



Buy of J. D. Wallace, for express money order, 
5 Sets No. 84 Oak Chairs. 



Sell H. S. Prentiss, on account, 

5 No. 90 Ext. Tables. 



7 



Sell F. P. Gaynor, for his joint-and-several note at 5 days, 
with E. W. Taylor, 

3 No. 48 Chiffoniers, 
3 '' 144 Sideboards, 
3 Sets No. 84 Oak Chairs. 
Receive note. 

9 

Give Brown & Warren 5 days' sight draft on G. F. 
Heustis, 167.55, in full of account to date. Debit Brown & 
Warren and credit G. F. Heustis. Journal entry. Give 
draft. 

10 

Give J. A. Clark certified check for your joint note at 
5 days, with C. W. Church, U50. 

Give check, certifying it yourself, using some one else's 
name, as cashier. 

• 11- 

Buy of G. W. Wilson, for a cashier's check, 
3 No. 80 Center Tables. 



11 



Sell H. S. Prentiss, for his due bill, 

3 No. 48 Bedsteads, 

3 ♦' 48 Chiffoniers. 
R.eceive due bill. 

12 

Receive certificate of deposit, in payment of F. P. 
Gaynor's note, dated March 7, 1890, $104.10. Receive 
certificate of deposit. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. S 29 



13 



Accepted G. W. Wilson's draft of $150, at 5 days' sight, 
drawu on us for Mdse. , as follows, 

12 No. lU Sideboards. 

14 



Sell E. W. Taylor, for bank draft, 

6 No. 48 Commodes, 
10 " 80 Center Tables. 
Less 5^. Receive draft. 

IG 

Sell M. F. Smith, for his sight draft on D. P. Ricker, 

6 No. 48 Dressers. 
Less 5^. Receive draft, which is entered for deposit, the 
same as a check. 

10 

Receive check for G. F. Heustis's note No. 7, dated March 
6, 1896, 832.50. 

17 

Buy of J. A. Clark, for your principal-and- surety note at 3 
days, with W. C. Clark, 

24 No. 99 S. P. Mattresses, 
72 ** 10 6-ft. Tables. 
Give note. 

17 

Sell L. M. Foskett, on account, 

3 No. 48 Bedsteads, 
3 ** 48 Chiffoniers, 
6 " 48 Commodes. 

18 



Sold C. A. Sargent, on account, 

3 No. 60 Sideboards. 
Gave him an order on J. A Clark for the goods. Give 
order. Two entries, one buying and one selling. 

18 

Pay your acceptance of the 13th, favor of G. W. 
Wilson, 8150. 



§ 29 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

Sell R. B. Hall, on account, 

2 No. 80 Center Tables, 
2 ** 144 Sideboards, 
2 Sets No. 84 Oak Chairs. 



20- 



Receive check for 175 of H. S. Prentiss, for his due bill of 
March 11, 1896. 

20 

Pay your principal-and- surety note at 3 days, with W. A, 
Clark, favor of J. A. Clark, 1366. 

20 



Sell E. W. Taylor, for post-office money order, 
1 Farmers' Desk. 

Buy of C. E. Leach, for cash, 

5 Ex. B. W. Bedsteads. 
Less 10^. 

21 

Pay W. L. Hill, for printing stationery, $6.50. 

Sell W. A. Cone, for his sight draft on R. B. Hall, 

38 No. 10 6-ft. Tables. 
Less 5^. 

23 

Sell W. A. Cone, on account, 

3 Farmers' Desks, 

2 Ex. B. W. Bedsteads, 

2 No. 80 Center Tables. 

Buy of J. D. Wallace, on account, 

12 No. 48 Commodes, 

3 " 48 Chiffoniers, 

5 Sets No. 84 Oak Chairs. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 29 

24 

Buy of H. R. Barber, for your note at 10 days, 
12 No. ISO C. Dressers, 

12 Cane Chairs^ 
Give note. 

Sell F. P. Gaynor, on account, 

13 No. 10 6-ft. Tables. 



25 



Buy of Holbrook & White, on ^_- —:::, 

5 Sets No. 84 Oak Chairs. 



Sell G. F. Heustis, for his joint-and-several note, at 10 
days, with J. E. Gaynor, \ 

12 No. 99 S. P. Mattresses* 
7 •' 144 Sideboards. 



Sell M. F. Smith, on account, 

3 No. 4S Chi^oniers, 
2 ^- 144 Sideboards, 
9 *' 10 6-ft. Tables. 



Buy of H. R. Barber, on account, 

2 Cane Chairs, 

3 Ex. B. W. Bedsteads, 
6 No. 48 Dressers. 



Sell to H. S Prentiss, for his due bill, 

5 Sets No. 84 Oak Chairs^ 
1 No. 48 ChiflEonier, 
4 *^ 48 Bedsteads. 



§ 29 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

30 



Sell C. A. Sargent, on account, 

7 No. 48 Commodes, 
2 " 48 Dressers, 
12 Cane Chairs. 



31 



Sell G. F. Heustis, for cash, 

5 No. 144 Sideboards, 
4 " 99 S. P. Mattresses, 
3 " 180 C. Dressers, 
2 Cane Chairs. 

Less bfo. 

31 . 

Sell H. R. Hall, for certified check, 

12 No. 10 6-ft. Tables, 
5 "48 Dressers, 
3 Ex. B. W. Bedsteads, 

Less 5^. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

(PART 4.) 



DHY-GOODS BUSINESS, 



PRACTICE SET. 



transactions. 

April 1, 1896. 

Open your books with the Resources and Liabilities on hand 
at the end of the last set, making your opening entry in the 
Cash Book on the first right-hand page preceding the debit 
and credit pages that you are to use. Use same Price List 
as in model set. 

1 

Pay O. T. Willis one month's rent^ 1150. Give check. 
Fill out receipt for Willis to sign. 



1 



Sell W. A. Cone all merchandise on hand for cash at cost 
price. 

See last inventory for itemized list. 

§30 

For notice of the copyrijjht, see p:isj:e immediately foliowiiiK tlie title paj^e. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 8 30 



Buy of E. W. Taylor, on account, 

1325 yd. Amoskeag- A. Sheetings, 

175 '' Union Ginghams, 

739 " Amoskeag Fancy Prints. 



Buy of G. W. "Wilson, for cash, 

1545 yd. Gordon Prints, 
1367 " Cheesecloth, 
15 " Tailor's Silk, 
15 gr. No. 6 Green Cord. 
Less IOC 

3 

Sell H. S. Prentiss, on accoimt, 

750 yd. Cheesecloth, 
500 " Gordon Prints. 



3 



Pay H. R. Barber your note at 10 days for $120, dated 
March 24, 1896. Give check. 



Buy of Holbrook & White, on account, 

190 yd. Black Alpaca, 

985 " Calico, 

760 " Union Ginghams, 

218 " Blue Storm Serge. 
Less 10^. 

4 

Receive certificate of deposit of G. F. Heustis for his joint 
note at 10 days with J. E. Gaynor, dated March 26, 1896. 



Sell C. E. Leach, for his note at 10 days, with interest at 
C^, the following bill of goods: 

25 yd. Blue Storm Serge, 
5 " Tailor's Silk, 
2 gr. No. 6 Green Cord. 



§ 30 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



Buy of J. D. Wallace, for your note at 15 clays, with inter- 
est at 6^, the following invoice of goods : 

2801|- yd. Amoskeag Fancy Prints, 
1192i " Amoskeag A. Sheetings, 
2670 ** Union Ginghams. 
Give note. 

— 7 

Buy of Brown & Warren, for cash, 

22 yd. Simpson's Mourning Prints, 
48 " Regretta Shirting, 
18 " Amoskeag Ginghams, 
120 " Brown Canton Flannel. 



Sell C. A. Sargent, on accoimt, 

325 yd. Amoskeag A. Sheetings, 
175 " Union Ginghams, 
739 " Amoskeag Fancy Prints. 
The above bill was sold at cost. See bill of April 2, 189(3, 
Make out bill. 



Sell E. W. Taylor, for bank draft, 

1401 1 yd. Amoskeag Fancy Prints, 
93 " Blue Storm Serge, 
125 " Calico. 
Give bill. 

9 

Pay H. R. Barber, in full of account, $230. 

10 

Sell R. B. Hall, for certified check, 

3 gr. No. G Green Cord, 
1717 yd. Union Ginghams. 
Receive check. 

11 

Receive cash of H. S. Prentiss for his due bill, dated March 
28, 1890, $95.50. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



11 



Give G. W. Wilson a sight draft on C. A. Sargent for the 
following invoice : 

292 yd. Wamsutta Muslin. 
Give draft- 

13 

Sell M. F. Smith, for his 5 days' draft on E. W. Taylor, 
45 yd. Black Alpaca, 
42 •' Gordon Prints, 
20 " Brown Canton FlanneL 

Receive draft Give bill. 



Sell G. F. Heustis, for his sight draft on L. M. Foskett, 
599^ yd. Amoskeag A. Sheetings, 
225 *' Gordon Prints, 
5 ** Tailor's Silk 
Give bilL 

1^ 

Pay J. A Clark in full of account by giving him a sight 
draft on C. A. Sargent for #2t2.3d. 

U 



Receive P. O. money order of W. A. Cone, in full of 
account to date, #34.75. 

15 

Buy of Holbrook & White, on account, 
225 yd. Valencia. 

1.^ 



Receive cash ^44.32 for C. E. Leach's note at 10 days, 
with interest at 6j^, dated April 6, 1896. (Int. ^.07.) 

Vj 



Sell F. P. GajTior, on account, 

75 yd. Amoskeag A. Sheetings, 
24 '• Regretta Shirting, 
171 •' Amoskeag Fancy Prints. 



§ 30 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

17 



Receive a bank draft of L. M. Foskett, in full of account, 

1292.55. 

17 

Sell R. B. Hall, on account, 

225 yd. Valencia. 

18 

Sell W. E. Haywood, on account, 

913 yd. Union Ginghams, 
325 " Gordon Prints, 
179 " Calico, 
72 " Wamsutta Muslin. 

18 



Receive certificate of deposit for E. W. Taylor's accept- 
ance of M. F. Smith's draft, dated April 13, 1896. 

20 

Pay W. L. Hill, for printing stationery, 13.25. 

20 

Sell F. P. Gaynor, for cash, 

119 yd. Gordon Prints, 
107 " Calico, 
15 " Wamsutta Muslin. 



21 



Pay J. D. Wallace your note at 15 days with interest at 
6^, dated April 6, 1890, $862.88. (Interest $2.15.) Give 
check. 

22 

Buy of J. A. Clark, on account, 

675 yd. Manchester Delaines, 
162 " Victoria Ginghams. 

23 

Sell G. F. Heustis, on account, 

644 yd. Amoskeag Fancy Prints, 

75 " Blue Storm Serge, 
325 " Calico. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 8 ,30 



Pay W. L. White !5>12.5U for cleaning- and repairing 
windows. 

24 

vScll to W. A. Cone, for cash, 

Go yd. Brown Canton Flannel, 
132 " Cheesecloth. 



25 



vSell to E. W. Taylor, for his joint note with M. J. Kelley 
at 10 days, without interest, 

497 yd. Union Ginghams. 

27 



Sell C. E. Leach, for cash, 

18 yd. Brown Canton Flannel, 
175 " Wariisutta Muslin. 



Sell M. F. Smith, on account. 

347 yd. Manchester Delaines 
25 " Victoria Ginghams, 
13 " Regretta Shirting, 
27 " Amoskeag A. Sheetings. 

28 



Sell L. M. Foskett, for certified check, 

97 yd. Amoskeag A. Sheetings, 
140 " Manchester Delaines, 
119 " Gordon Prints, 
315 " Cheesecloth. 



29 



Buy of John Hayden, for your note at 10 days, without 
interest, 

225 yd. Valencia. 
Give note. 



30 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



30 



Sell H. S. Prentiss, for cash, 

10 gr. No. G Green Cord, 
5 yd. Tailor's Silk. 
Post, take Trial Balance, make statement, enter inventory, 
and close books. 





INVENTORT. 






394 yd. 


AmoskeagA. Sheetings, 


$ .16 


$ 63.04 


188 '' 


Manchester Delaines, 


.20 


37,60 


22 '' 


Simpson's Mourning Prints, 


.Hi 


2.53 


137 '^ 


Victoria Ginghams, 


.15 


20.55 


11 " 


Regretta Shirting, 


.11 


1.21 


18 " 


Amoskeag Ginghams, 


.15 


- 2.70 


17 " 


Brown Canton Flannel, 


.22 


3.74 


215 " 


Gordon Prints, 


.091- 


20.43 


170 " 


Cheesecloth, 


.021 


4.68 


145 " 


Black Alpaca, 


.38 


55.10 


303 " 


Union Ginghams, 


.12^ 


37.88 


249 " 


Calico, 


.03| 


9.34 


30 " 


Wamsutta Muslin, 


.31 


9.30 


25 " 


Blue Storm Serge, 


.50 


12.50 


225 " 


Valencia, 


.45 


101.25 


585 *' 


Amoskeag Fancy Prints, 


.12 


70.20 




$452.05 



QUESTIONS. 

(1) What is a Cash Journal ? 

(2) To what class of business is this style of bookkeeping 
best adapted ? 

(3) If we have a large number of sales on account, what 
is the best manner of keeping account of them ? 

(4) Where are sales for notes, time drafts, etc. entered ? 

(5) Could they be entered in the Sales Book ? 



6 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 50 

(G) I low do you post from the Cash Journal? 

(T) Could we use more than two columns to advantage in 
the Cash Journal ? 

(8) Would not a debit and credit column for merchandise 
he of value ? 

(0) How and where do you make the opening- entry for a 
set of books, UvSing the Cash Journal as the principal book ? 

(10) Is there any advantage in closing all personal 
accounts every time we close our books ? 

(11) When should we always close a personal account ? 

(12) How- often is it usual to take a Trial Balance ? 

(13) How often do most houses close their books? 

(1-4) Is it necessary to always take an inventory before 
you close a set of books ? 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

(PART 5.) 



gekebal-mercha:n^dise busiin^ess, 



PRACTICE SET, 



transactions. 

May 1, 1896. 

In this set you are to use a Cash- Book, keeping a Mdse. 
column; Purchase Book, Order Book, Sales Book, Journal, 
and Ledger. 

This is to be a partnership business, F. W. Lord being 
your partner and investing cash to the amount of your 
Present Worth. You are to invest the Resources and 
Liabilities as shown at the close of the last business. Your 
partner is to share equally in the gains or losses. In form- 
ing the firm name you are to use your own name followed 
by "& Co." only, the name of your partner not appearing. 
You are to receive a salary of $150 per month for conducting 
the business, which is to be charged to the general expense 
of the business. You are to lease store. No. 422 Main Street, 
of O. T. Willis, at a monthly rental of $150, payable in 
advance. 

§31 

For notice of the eopynVlit, see page iimiicdicitelj- following the title page. 



2 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 31 

Fill out the Copartnership Agreement and Lease. Receive 
F. W. Lord's check for his investment, payable to the order 
of the firm. Give the firm a check for the total amount of 
cash that you have on deposit, and deposit both checks to 
tlie credit of the new firm. Fill out a deposit slip. Use same 
price list as in model set. 

1 

Pay O. T. Willis one month's rent, in advance, $150. 

2 



Settle all personal accounts to date by drawing sight 
drafts on those Vv^ho are owing you and by giving checks to 
those whom, you owe. Render statements to all parties 
owing you. Post and rule up these accounts. 



Insure your stock of goods for $10000, through the agency 
of A. H. Hamilton, at a premium of 1^^. Fill out Insurance 
Policy. 

5 

Sell all Mdse. on hand to M. F. Smith, on account, at cost 
price. See last inventory for itemized list. 



Receive cash, 1^74.55. of E. W. Taylor for his joint note 
with M. J. Kelley at 10 days, without interest, dated 
April 25. 

G 

Buy of R. B. Hall, on account, 

50 bbl. St. Louis Extra Flour, 
100 *' State Superfine ** 



Sell W. A. Cone, for cash, 

25 bbl. St. Louis Extra Flour. 



Buy of Brown & Warren, for cash, 

50 bbl. of Mess Pork. 



§ 31 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



Pay John Hayden 1101.25, for your note at 10 days, with- 
out interest, dated April 29, 1896. 



Sell G. F. Heustis, for cash, 

25 bbl. State Superfine Flour. 



11 



Buy of I. H. White, for cash, 

50 bu. White Genesee Wheat. 



12 



Sell E. W. Taylor, on account, 

1 bbl. St. Louis Extra Flour, 
1 " State Superfine " 
1 " Mess Pork. 



13 



Buy of Holbrook & White, on account, 
75 bu. Oats, 
65 " Rye. 

14 



Sell F. P. Gaynor, for a certified check, 

25 bu. White Genesee Wheat, 
25 " Oats, 
25 " Rye. 

15 



Buy of J. D. Wallace, on your note at 5 days, without 
interest, 

2 hhd. 3200 lb. Sugar. 
Give note. 

16 

Sell C. E. Leach, on account, 

3 bbl. St. Louis Extra Flour, 
1 '* Mess Pork, 
1300 lb. Sugar. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 31 



18 



Sell G. F. Heustis, for cash, 

25 bbl. State Superfine Flour. 

19 



Buy of R. B. Hall, for cash, 

125 bbL Apples. 



20 



Pay J. D. Wallace 1288, for youi' note at 5 days, without 
interest, dated May 15, 189G. 

21 



Buy of G. W. Wilson, for cash, 

2 chests, 300 lb. , Young Hyson Tea. 

22 



Sell G. F. Heustis, on account, 

75 lb. Young Hyson Tea, 
900 " Sugar, 
25 bbl. Apples. 



23 



Sell C, A. Sargent, for cash, 

1 1 bbl. St. Louis Extra Flour, 
25 " Mess Pork. 



25 



Sell W. A. Cone, for cash, 

24 bbl. State Superfine Flour, 

25 bu. White Genesee Wheat. 

20 



Sell R. B. Hall, for his note at 10 days, without interest, 
500 lb. Sugar, 
75 bbl. Apples. 

27 



Sell L. M. Foskett, on account, 

75 lb. Young Hyson Tea. 






^ 



§ 31 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



28 



Sell W. E. Haywood, on account, 
50 bu. Oats, 
40 " Rye. 



29 



Sell H. R. Barber, for cash, 

12 bbl. Mess Pork, 

25 " State Superfine Flour. 

30 

Receive cash, 1150, for your salary for one month for con- 
ducting the business. Get check. Give company a receipt. 
Consider your inventory bfo less than cost price. 



INVENTORY. 






10 bbl. St. Louis Extra Flour, 


113.50 


$135.00 


11 " Mess Pork, 


18.00 


198.00 


25 " Apples, 


L15 


28.75 


500 lb. Sugar, 


.09 


45.00 


150 *' Yoimg Hyson Tea, 


1.25 


187.50 

1594.25 


Less 5^ 




29.71 

$564.54 



QUESTIONS. 

(1) What is an Order Book used for ? 

(2) What are its advantages ? 

(3) What is to be saved by the use of a Purchase Book ? 

(4) In what way is it different from a Sales Book ?' 

(5) What is a partnership ? 

(6) How are they formed ? 

(7) Is a written agreement necessary? 

(8) Is it better or not to have one ? Why ? 



6 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. § 31 

(9) How do you make an opening entry for a partnership 
business ? 

(lU) In hiring a building is it best to take a lease ? 

(11) What do you gain by so doing ? 

(12) What is insurance ? 

(13) What is an insurance policy? 

(U) What is a shipping receipt ? 

(15) When shipping goods by freight or express is it best 
to take a receipt ? 

(10) What does it show, and of what benefit is it to the 
shipper ? 

(IT) Is there any difference in closing books for a part- 
nership than for an individual proprietor ? 

(18) How must the loss or gain, in a partnership business, 
be divided ? 

If you can obtain a commercial law book, it would be of 
great advantage to you to do so, and study up on the different 
kinds of partnerships, the laws governing leases, insurance, 
and shipping. 

These are points that come up every day in a business 
life, and to thoroughly understand them is of great value, as 
it oftentimes saves much trouble and expense. 



I 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 

(PART 6.) 



PRODUCE a:n^d pkotisiok busi:n^ess. 



PRACTICE SET. 



transactions. 

June 1, 1896. 

(Student) & Co. h?.ve this day leased store, No. 422 Main 

Street, of O. T. Willis at a monthly rental of 1150, payable 

in advance, for the purpose of conducting a general Produce 

and Provision Business with the Resources and Liabilities as 

shown at the close of the last month's business. Make your 

opening entry in the Six-Column Journal. Use same price 

list as in model set. 

1 . 

You have this day agreed to allow your partner to with- 
draw his interest in the business, in cash. Give him a check 
for his present worth and get a receipt. 



Pay O. T. Willis one month's rent in advance, $150. Give 
check. Take receipt. 

§32 

I'or notice of tlie copyriglil, sec pa.v;c imiiKMlialcl j- f<>lU)\vin^ tlic title pa^c 



DUUBLE-EXTRY BOOKKEEPING. g 22 



Buy of M. F. Smith, on account, 

1 Bay Horse and Wagon, ^250, 
1 Office Safe, $125. 
Debit Chattels for the horse and wagon and debit Store 
and Office Furniture for office safe. 



Sell L. M. Foskett at cost price, for cash, all merchandise 
on hand. For itemized list, see last month's inventory. 



Receive R. B. Hall's check for #'2 "2 5, for his note at 10 days, 
without interest, dated May 20, 1S96. 



Buy of E. W. Taylor, on account, less 10)^, 
' 100 bbl. XX Flour, 
50 " Pork, 
100 " Apples. 



Sell G. F. Heustis, for his 5 days' draft on M. F. Smith, 
the following bill of goods : 

25 bbl. Pork 



Buy of W. E. Hay^vood, on account, 
200 bbl. Salt. 



10 



Buy of Holbrook Sz White, for your sight draft on L. M 
Foskett, the following invoice of goods : 
1800 lb. Bacon. 

11 



Sell W. E. Ha\•^vood, on account, 

5 bbl. XX Flour, 
10 '* Apples, 
15 " Salt 



32 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



12 



Buy of Brown & Warren, for your note at 10 days, with 
interest at 6^, the following invoice of goods: 
20bbl. Sugar, 5280 1b., 
80 '* Hominy. 
Give note. 

13^ 

Receive certificate of deposit for 1255 of M. F. Smith for 
his acceptance of G. F. Heustis's draft at 5 days' sight, dated 
June 8, 1896. 

15 

Make a shipment to L. E. Grover, Wilkes- Barre, Pa. , of 
25 bbl. XX Flour, invoiced at $4. 50, to be sold on commis- 
sion. 

16 

Buy of J. E. Gaynor, for cash, 

22 bbl. Corned Beef. 

17 



Sell C. A. Sargent, for his joint-and-several note, at 10 
days, with interest at 8^ with J. F. Hayden, 
5 bbl. Sugar, 1320 lb., 
900 lb. Bacon. 

18 



Pay O. T. Swain $15, for signs. 
19 — 



Buy 5 bbl. N. O. Molasses, 219^ gal. net, at 75c., of 
J. A. Clark, and give in payment a draft for 1164.44 at 
3 days' sight on L. E. Grover, Wilkes-Barre, Pa., on account 
of shipment No. 1, made on the 15th inst. 

20 



Sell E. W. Taylor, for cash, 

35 bbl. XX Flour, 
25 *' Apples, 
40 " Hominy, 
11 ** Corned Beef. 



DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. §32 



Pay Brown & Warren cash iGSO.Slj, for your note at 10 
days, with interest at 6,'^, dated June 12, 1896. 

23 



Buy of E. E. Cleveland, for cash, 
10 acres Redwood land in Humboldt Co. , Cal., at $50 per acre. 



2-4 



Receive of P. B. Swift, Springfield, Mass. , the following 
Merchandise as a consignment, paying freight 810, drayage 
82.50, on the same: 

180 bu. Beans, 
2:0 bbl. Salt, 

7 doz. pairs ^Men's Shoes, 
9G0 lb. Bacon. 

25 



Sell W. E. Haywood, on account, 
450 lb. Bacon, 

5 bbl. Sugar, 1320 1b. 

26 

Receive accoimt sales and money order for 825 from 
L. E. Grover, as net proceeds of your shipment No. 1. 



26 



Sell J. A. Clark, P. B. Swift's consignment No. 1, for 
cash, 8325. 

27 

Receive cash, $177.99, of C. A. Sargent for his joint- 
and-several note, at 10 days, with interest at 8^, with 
J. F. Hayden, dated June 17, 1896. 

27 



Remit P. B. Swift account sales and proceeds of consign- 
ment No. 1, after entering your charges for Commission, 
2^^; Insurance, J^; Storage, i^; Advertising, ^^. Figure 
the charges on the cfross proceeds, 1325. Give check. 



32 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. 



•27- 



Sell R. B. Hall, on account^ the horse and wag'on, $325, 
and store and office furniture, 1175, purchased on the 3d inst. 



20 



Sell real estate, purchased on the 23d inst., to G. W. Wilson 
for cash, $1000. 

30 

Sell all merchandise on hand to W. A. Cone for cash. 



30 



Draw sight drafts on all parties who are owing you, except 
W. E. Haywood, whose account is considered doubtful and 
is now closed to Suspense Account; then, pay all parties 
whom you are owing, thus reducing your business to a cash 
basis. 



QUESTIOISrS. 

(1) What is a Six- Column, or Special- Column, Journal ? 

(2) What are its advantages ? 

(3) Do you need to keep a Cash Book with it ? 

(4) Why do you keep a Sales Book with it ? 

(5) Would there be any advantage in keeping a Purchase 
Book with it ? 

(6) Is there any difference in the form of opening entry 
when you use this book ? 

(7) What are the first two columns in this book used for ? 

(8) For what are the next two used ? And the next ? 

(9) How do you post from this book ? 

(10) What is a shipment ? 



6 DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING. §3-2 

(11) What is a consignment ? 

(12) In making a shipment, do you charge the goods to 
the party to whom sent ? 

(13) What is commission ? 

(14) What is an Account Sales ? 

(15) What is an Account Purchase? 

(16) What is Suspense Account ? 

(17) Why is it better to use this account than to use the 
L. & G. account ? 



INDEX. 



Note.— All items in this index refer first to the section (see Preface, Vol. I) and then 
to the page of the section. Thus, "Cooperage 27 8" means that cooperage will be found 
on page 8 of section 27. 



A. Sec. 

Abbreviations, Commercial 27 

" Use of periods 

with 20 

Absolute and independent, 

Meaning of 15 

" constructions 20 



possessive pronoun... n 

Abstract nouns 16 

Accents 20 

Account books 27 

" Open 27 

" purchase 32 

" sales, Form of 32 

" Statement of 28 

" Suspense 32 

Accountant, Definition of 27 

Accounts, Classification of 27 

" Personal 27 

" Speculative and non- 
speculative 27 

Acknowledgment, Definition of 27 

Active transitive verbs 18 

. " verbs 18 

" Classes of 18 

Added clauses, Punctuation of.. 20 

Adjective, Adjunctive 17 

" Appositive 17 

" Definition of 14 

" elements, Expansion 

of 17 

" equivalents 17 

" Functions of 15 

" " " 17 



Inflection of 17 

joined to modified 

word 15 

Parsing of 17 

phra.ses and clauses, 

Uses of 17 

Place of 17 

Predicative 17 

used as a novin 15 



Page. 
16 

27 

1 
20 
21 

2 
43 

4 
13 

5 

4 

5 

5 

3 
.50 
14 

50 
4 

4 

5 

22 

2 

2 
25 

15 

15 

4 

1 



4 
14 



Sec. Page. 
Adjective used as complement 

of predicate 15 5 

Adjectives classified with respect 

to form... 17 2 
" " with respect 

to use 17 5 

Comparison of 17 19 

Definite and indefi- 
nite 17 5 

Demonstrative 17 6 

Derivation of 17 3 

Numeral 17 5 

Primitive or deriva- 
tive 17 3 

Pronominal 17 6 

Proper or common.. . 17 3 

Qualitative 17 5 

Quantitative 17 5 

Rules for comparing 17 12 

vSimple or compound 17 3 

Table of 17 18 

Adjunctive adjective 17 2 

Adverb, Definition of 14 27 

" Functions of 15 5 

" 19 18 

Modal 19 21 

"There" 19 24 

Adverbial adjective 16 20 

Adverbs classified according to 

meaning... 19 23 
" " according to 

use 

" Compari.son of 

" Conjunctive 1 



19 


20 


19 


24 


15 


12 


19 


20 



formed of phrases and 
clauses 19 

Interrogative 19 

of time, place, manner, 
degree, and conijiari- 
son 19 

Parsing of 19 



VU 



\111 



IXDKX. 



Si'c. 

Adverbs, Simple J9 

Table of lH 

Adversative conjunctions U» 

Advice, Definition of '^ 

Agent, Defvnition of 27 

Allowance, Definition of 27 

Alternative conjunctions 10 

Analvsis, Meaning of 15 

" Models of 15 

" of complex and com- 
pound sentences. . 15 
' " simple sentences. . . 15 

ii u ygj-b phrases 18 

'• 19 

Annuity, Definition of 27 

Antecedent of pronoun 17 

Antedate 27 

Apostrophe 20 

Use of..-. 20 

Apposition, Punctuation of ele- 
ments in 20 

Appositive adjective 17 

" object 10 

" particulars, Punctua- 
tion of 20 

Appraise, Definition of 27 

Appurtenances, Definition of 27 

Arm, Position of 12 

" 13 

Articles 17 

" Definition of 27 

" of copartnership 31 

Attachment, Definition of 27 

Author's name following cita- 
tion, The use of dash with 20 

Auxiliary parts of speech 14 

Average, Definition of 27 

B. Sec. 

Balance of trade 27 

sheet 27 

Bank balance 27 

" bills, or notes 27 

" Definition of 27 

draft 29 

" of deposit 27 

" " discount 27 

" '* issue 2^' 

" stock 27 

Banking ledger 27 

Bankrupt, Definition of 27' 

Bill book 27 

" Use of 27 

" Definition of 27 

" head 27 

" of exchange 29 

" " sale 27 

Bills payable 27 



20 



2 
4 

35 

32 

5 

Pas^e. 
5 
5 



Sec. 

Bills payable 27 

" receivable 27 

Blanks 27 

Blotter, Definition of 27 

Book account 27 

Bookkeeping, Definition of 27 

" Uses of 27 

Books, how closed 27 

usedindry-goodsbusiness 30 
" " " furniture business 29 
" " " general -merchan- 
dise business 31 

" " " grocery business. . 28 
" " '• produce and pro- 
vision business. . 32 
Botanical names. Capitalization 

of 20 

Brace 20 

Brackets 20 

Use of 20 

Broker 27 

Brokerage 27 

Business transactions, Explana- 
tions concerning 2* 

C. Sec. 

Cancel, Definition of 27 

Capital letters 12 

" 13 

" Use of 20 

" stock 27 

Capitalization of botanical names 20 

" " defined terms. . 20 
" •' deri va t i ons 
from proper 

names 20 

" " examples and 

num be red 

items 20 

" " first words 20 

" " headings 20 

" "I" and '-O".. 20 
" "important 

words 20 

" " n am es of the 

Deity 20 

" "personified 

nouns 20 

" " proper names. . 20 
" " quoted titles ... 20 
" " Roman numer- 
als 20 

" " sacred writings 20 

" " sentences 14 

" titles 20 

" "zoological 

names 20 

Caret 20 



Page. 



19 

Pitge. 

41 
22 

45 

51 
52 



50 



INDEX. 



IX 



Sec. Page. 

Cartage 2? 7 

Case constructions, Diagrams of 16 24 

" in nouns 16 13 

" Meaning of 16 13 

" Nominative 16 14 

Use of 16 Ti 

" Objective 16 16 

Use of 16 19 

" Possessive 16 15 

Use of 16 19 

Cases, Functions of 16 17 

Cash book, Special columns in... 29 3 
" " Use of, in double 

entry 28 2 

" Definition of 27 7 

" journal, Use of 30 1 

Cashier's check 29 7 

Cedilla 20 44 

Certificate, Definition of 27 7 

" of deposit 29 4 

Certified check, Example of 29 4 

Chattels, Definition of 27 8 

Check, Cashier's 29 7 

Checks, Use of 27 23 

Clause, Coordinate 17 25 

" Definitions of 15 9 

" elements 15 8 

" Restrictive 17 25 

Clauses, added, Punctuation of. . 20 22 

" and phrases 20 6 

Coordinate 15 11 

" " Punctuation 

of 20 23 

" Functions of 15 10 

" independent, Punctua- 
tion of 20 19 

'* Principal, leading, pri- 
mary, or independent 15 11 

" Rank of 15 10 

** relative, Punctuation of 20 15 
" subdivided. Punctua- 
tion of 20 23 

" Subordinate, depend- 
ent, or secondary 15 11 

Closing a set of books 27 52 

" books for partnership.. . 31 11 

" lines 27 8 

Cognate objects 18 10 

Collaterals, Definition of 27 8 

Collective nouns 16 2 

Colon, Rules for 20 24 

Combined movement 12 9 

13 11 

Comma, (ieneral principles of 

use of 20 9 

Rules for use of L'O 9 

Commercial abbreviations 27 16 

Common adjective 17 3 



Sec. 

Common gender 16 

"■ noun, Definition of 16 

" nouns. Classes of 16 

Comparative degree of compari- 
son 17 

Comparison 16 

" of adjectives 17 

" " " Irregu- 
lar... 17 
" " Rules 

for... 17 

" " adverbs 19 

Complex sentence. Analysis of. . 15 

" " Definition of 15 

Compound adjective 17 

17 

"• adverb 19 

" members of simple 

sentence 15 

" personal pronouns. . . 17 

" relative pronoun 17 

" sentence. Analysis of 15 

" " Definition 

of 15 

" series, Punctuation of 20 

Conjttgation 16 

" Definition of 18 

" of verbs 19 

Conjunction, Definition of a 14 

" Function of the 19 

Conjunctions, Classes of 19 

" Coordinating 19 

" Correlative 19 

" Parsing of 19 

" Subordinating ... 15 

.... 19 

Table of 19 

Conjunctive adverbs 15 

19 

Connectives, Omitted 20 

"• Subordinate 15 

"• understood 15 

Consideration, Definition of 27 

Consignments, Explanation of.., 32 
Contrasted elements. Punctua- 
tion of 20 

Conveyance, Definition of 27 

Cooperage 27 

Coordinate clauses 15 

17 

" " Punctuation 

of 20 

Coordinating conjunctions 19 

Copartnership, Articles of 31 

Copulative conjunctions 19 

Correlative conjunctions 19 

Curves 12 

'' 13 



Page. 

10 

1 

2 

11 
6 
9 



IN'DKX. 



Dash. Parenthetical -W 

Rules for -W 

used to indicate change in 

sense or construction ... 30 

Date, Definition of '^ 

Dates, Punctuation of "-W 

E>ead languages 14 

Declarative sentence 14 

Declension 16 

of nouns 16 

Defective verbs 19 

Definite adjectives. 17 

Demonstrative adjectives IT 

" pronouns 17 

Demonstratives. Ordinary IT 

DeF>endent clauses 15 

" Punctuation 

of J^ 

particulars, Punctua- 
tion of no 

Deposit, Definition of JT 

slips -27 

Derivation of adjectives . . 17 

Derivative adjective 17 

Diagrams of case constructions 16 

Dieresis 30 

Dimensions of letters 1-i 

" 13 

Direct questions, Ptinctuation of 30 
" quotations. Punctuation 

of 30 

Discount 37 

" Explanation of 29 

Dishonor. Definition of 27 

Disjunctive connection 30 

Ditto marks 20 

Dividend. Definition of 2? 

Double-entry bookkeeping 21 

Definition ot 21 

'' relative pronoun 17 

Draft. Definition of 29 

" Protection of 27 

Drayage 27 

Dry-goods business. Model set 

for .30 

Due bill 29 

Duplicate. Definition of 27 

E. Sec. 

Elements, Clause 15 

Phrase 15 

" Sentential 14 

Ellipse of the verb 30 

Ellipsis. 20 

Emphasis 2i) 

Entering transactions in six- col- 
umn journal a 

Entry, Opening 27 



32 
9 

21 
3 

10 
6 

17 
6 
5 
6 

29 
6 

11 



Pci^e. 



33 



Sec. 

Etymological punctuation 30 

Etymology 14 

Examples and numbered items. 

Capitalization of . , 30 

Exchange. Bill of 29 

Exclamation p>oint. Rules for 30 

Exclamatory phrases 19 

sentences . 14 

sentences and ex- 
pressions 30 

series 19 

Express money order 29 

Extend. Definition of 27 

F. Sec. 

Facsimile. Definition of 27 

Factitive object 16 

Feminine distinctions. Omission 

of 16 

gender 16 

Figures 12 

13 

Finger movement 12 

13 

First words. Capitalization of . . . 30 

Flour business. Model set for 27 

Forearm movement 12 

13 

Freight, Definition of 27 

Function of the adjective IT 

" " adverb 19 

" " " conjunction 19 

" '• '• preposition 13 

" '* " pronoun 1? 

" " verb 18 

Functions of clauses 15 

" nouns and pro- 
nouns 15 

" " sentential elements 15 
" '' the preposition and 
conjunction com- 
pared 19 

Furniture business. Books used 

in 20 

" Model set 

for 29 

G. Sec. 

Gain, Definition of 27 

Gains and losses 27 

Gender and sex. Distinction be 

tween 16 

" by form or meaning 16 

" " use or context 16 

Common 16 

Definition of 16 

Feminine 16 

in nouns 16 



3 
5 

47 

6 

31 



31 
39 
9 
10 

10 
20 

11 
3 

30 
13 
9 
10 
4b 
29 
8 
9 
10 
1 

18 
32 
27 
W 
1 
10 



Si 

1 
1 

10 
49 

9 
10 
10 
10 
9 
9 
9 



INDEX. 



XI 



Sec. Page. 

Gender, Masculine 16 9 

Neuter 16 10 

" of proper names 16 11 

General - merchandise business, 

Model set for 31 1 

Generalization, Use of dash with 20 33 

Gerund, Definition of 18 22 

Graduated emotion 20 32 

Grammar, Definition of 14 5 

" Divisions of 14 5 

" Domain of 14 7 

" in punctuation 20 6 

" Later divisions of ... . 14 5 

" Province of 14 4 

" Unit of thought in . . . 14 6 

Grammatical punctuation 20 3 

Grocery business, Books used in 28 1 

Model set for 28 1 

Gross weight 27 10 

H. Sec. Page. 

Hand, Position of 12 6 

" 13 5 

Headings, Capitalization of 20 46 

Hyphen ; 20 44 

I. Sec. Page. 

''I "and "O," Capitalization of 20 54 

Illative conjunctions 19 34 

Imperative mode 18 13 

" sentence 14 10 

Indefinite adjectives 17 5 

" pronominal adjectives 17 7 

" pronouns 17 30 

Independent clauses. Punctua- 
tion of 20 19 

" or absolute. Mean- 
ing of 15 1 

Indexing ledger .. 27 32 

Indicative and subjunctive 
modes con- 
trasted 18 14 

" mode 18 12 

Indirect object 16 19 

Indispensable parts of speech... . 14 32 
Infinitive, Elements that may be 

associated with 18 18 

Forms of 18 17 

Functions of 18 19 

mode 18 16 

Inflected words, Kinds of change 

in 16 6 

Inflection by different words 16 7 

" " suffixes K; G 

" Definition of 1(1 4 

of the adjective 17 9 

" " " noun 16 4 

" " " 16 26 



Sec. Page. 
Inflection of the noun to denote 
number, sex, and 

case 16 5 

" "word by change 

within it 16 6 

" Special names of 16 6 

Inflectional base of verb 19 3 

Informal introduction, Punctua- 
tion of 20 21 

Ink 13 3 

" 12 4 

Instant, Definition of 27 10 

Insurance policy 27 10 

" ....31 2 

Interjection, Definition of 14 32 

Interjections, Thought ex- 

pressedby 19 38 

Use of 19 38 

Interrogation mark in case of 

doubt... 20 30 

" Rules for.. 20 29 

Interrogative adverbs 19 20 

" pronominal ad- 
jectives 17 7 

" pronouns 17 28 

" sentence 14 10 

" tense forms 18 28 

Intransitive verbs 18 6 

Introductory expressions, Punc- 
tuation of 20 24 

" words, U,se of dash 

for 20 34 

Inventory, Furniture busi- 
ness 29 10 

Investment, Definition of 27 10 

Invoice book 27 11 

Invoices 27 24 

Irregular verb 19 4 

" verbs, List of 19 6 

J. Sec. Page. 

Job lot 27 11 

Jobber 27 11 

Joint note 29 3 

" stock 27 11 

Journal, Definition of 27 11 

" Six-column 32 1 

Use of 27 29 

" " "in furniture 

business 29 3 

Judgment, Definition of 27 11 

note 27 11 

Junior partner 27 11 

\a. Sec. Page. 

Language, Definition of 14 2 

Languages, Dead 14 3 

" Living 14 2 



Xn INDEX. 



SfC. Page. 

I>ease, Explanation regarding... 31 S 

Ledger ST 11 

• Banking 27 21 

" how closed 29 10 

" indexed 27 32 

" UseoL 27 31 

Left curve 13 12 

'• 12 11 

Lessee 27 11 

Letter of advice. 27 11 

" attomev 27 12 

"credit 27 12 

Letters and characters. 20 40 . 

'• Capital 12 41 

" 13 22 

Small 13 13 

Liabilities. 27 -19 

Lines 12 11 

" 13 12 

Living languages. 14 2 

Logical elementSs Punctuation 

of... : 21) 9 

** punctuation 2i) 1 

M. Sec. Page. 

Maker. Definition of 27 12 

Marks of parenthesis. 20 .35 

" '• punctuation. Miscella- 
neous. 20 43 

" "quantity 20 45 

" Reference 20 45 

Masculine gender 16 9 

Mercantile agency 27 12 

terms 27 3 

Modal adverb 19 21 

• adverbs. Classes of 19 22 

h ow distin- 

graished 19 21 

Mode, Dennition of 18 12 

" Imperative 18 13 

• ' " ative 18 12 

::ve 18 16 

- z rial 18 28 

Relation of, to tense 19 1 

" Subjunctive 18 14 

Model set for dry goods business 30 1 
" " furniture business 29 1 
" " " general-merchan- 
dise business 31 1 

produce and pro- 
vision bu.siness.. .32 1 
wholesale flour 

business 27 29 

Modifier, Definition of 14 19 

Use or function of 14 is 

Money order. Definition of v*7 12 

Express 29 9 

Post-office 29 7 



Sec. Pagt 

Movement, Combined- 12 9 

13 11 

Finger 12 9 

13 9 

Muscular or forearm 12 8 

13 9 

Whole arm 12 8 

" 13 9 

Movements in penmanship 12 7 

Muscular or forearm movement 12 8 

13 9 



li 



X. 

Names, Generic or class 

" of the Deity, Capitaliza- 
tion of 

National banks 

Net loss 

'• proceeds. 

" weight. 

Neuter g^ender 

" verbs 

Nominal, Definition of 

Nominative case 

" " Use of 

Note, Joint- 

" Principal-and- surety 

Noun as equivalent of adverbial 

phrase 

" " modifier denoting pos- 
session or origin 

" " object of prep>osition. . . 
" " predicate complement. . 

" Common 

Definition of 

in explanation of meaning 
of another noon or pro- 
noun 

" Parsing of 

Nouns, Abstract 

Classes of 

Collective 

Declension oL 

" Formation of plural of.. 

Functions of 

Inflectionsof ,,. 



" for person.. 

*■ to denote 

number, 

sex, and 

case 

Proper 

regarded as common .... 

Table of 

Verbal 

Number. Definition of 

in nouns 



Sec. 
16 



20 



Page. 

1 

48 
12 
13 
13 
13 
10 
4 

13 
14 

3 

6 



INDEX. 



Xlll 



Sec. 

Number, Plural 16 

" Singular 16 

Numeral adjectives 17 

O. Sec. 

"O" and "I," Capitalization of 20 

Object, Adverbial 16 

" Appositive 16 

" Factitive 16 

Indirect 16 

" of preposition 19 

Objective case 16 

" Use of 16 

Objects, Cognate 18 

Obligation, Definition of 27 

Omission denoted by apostrophe 20 

" dash 20 

Omitted connectives 20 

Open account 27 

"■ policy 27 

Opening entry 27 

" " dry - goods busi- 
ness 30 

" Form No. 2 28 

" " furniture b u s i - 

ness 29 

" " general-merchan- 
dise business. . . 31 
" " produce business 32 

Oral parsmg 16 

Order book 27 

" Use of 31 

" Definition of 27 

" Shipping or forwarding. . 31 

" Specimen of 29 

Orthoep3' 14 

Orthography' 14 

P. Sec. 

Paper 12 

13 

Paragraph 20 

Parenthesis, Use of 20 

Parenthetical dash 20 

" grammatical ele- 
ments. Punctua- 
tion of 20 

Parsing of adjectives 17 

" " adverbs 19 

" " conjunctions 10 

" " nouns 16 

" " prepositions 19 

" " pronouns 17 

" " verbs 1!) 

" Oral 1(i 

Written 1(i 

I*:irt iciples IH 

*' Present and perfect. . 19 



Pa^^e 

7 
& 

Page 
54 
20 
19 
20 
19 
30 
16 
19 
10 
13 
39 
34 
18 
13 
13 
33 



22 
13 

1 
13 
11 

9 

5 

5 

Page. 

4 

3 
45 
35 
33 



Sec. 

Partnership, Closmg books for. . 31 

" Definition of ..... . 27 

Parts of speech 14 

16 

"• " " Auxiliary 14 

" " " grouped 14 

" " " Indispensable.... 14 

Pass book 27 

" 27 

Passive progressive tense 18 

" transitive verbs 18 

Pen, Holding 12 

13 

Penholders 12 

13 

Pen manship 12 

Pens 12 

" 13 

Per annum. Meaning of 27 

" cent.. Meaning of 27 

" diem. Meaning of 27 

" Meaning of 27 

Percentage, Definition of 27 

Perfect participle 19 

Period, Rules for 20 

" Use of, in complete sen- 
tences 20 

Person and number of verbs 19 

" Definition of 16 

" First 16 

" in nouns 16 

" Inflection of nouns for. . . 16 

" of subject noun 16 

" Second IG 

Personal accounts 27 

"• pronouns. Declension of 17 

" Function of. . 17 

" property 27 

Personification 16 

Personified nouns. Capitalization 

of 20 

Phrase and clavise adverbs 19 

" Definition of 15 

" elements 15 

Phrases and clauses 20 

" Exclamatory 19 

Plural number 16 

" of nouns. Rules for form- 
ing 16 

Points used in punctuation 20 

Policy, Open 27 

Position in penmansliip 12 

13 

Side 13 

Positive degree of comparison.. 17 

I'ossessive case Ki 

" " denoted by apos- 
trophe 20 



Page 

11 

13 

19 

1 

32 

32 

32 

13 

21 

27 

7 

7 

7 

3 

2 

1 

3 

3 

14 

14 

14 

13 

14 

5 

27 

27 
3 
11 
12 
11 
6 
12 
12 
14 
22 
20 
14 
10 

52 
25 



XIV 



IXDKX. 



S.r. 

I'ossessive case, Use of 10 

" pronominal adjec- 
tives 17 

Post date, Definition of '27 

*' office money order 29 

Posting credit items only 27 

debit items only 27 

Definition of 27 

" journal to ledger 27' 

Potential mode 18 

" verb phrases IS 

Power of attorney 27 

Predicate complement 15 

" Definition of 14 

Predication, Kinds of 18 

Predicative- adjective 17 

Preferred stock 27 

Preposition, Definition of 14 

Function. of 19 

Object of 19 

Prepositit)ns, Classes of 19 

List of 19 

Parsing of 19 

Table of 19 

Present participle 19 

Price list. Flour business 27 

Primary tenses 18 

T'rimitive adjective 17 

Principal-and-surety note 2.) 

parts modified and un- 
modified 14 

" of a sentence 14 

" u u ^.g^i^ jr^ 

Proceeds, Definition of 27 

Produce and provision business. 

Model set for 32 

Progressive passive tense 18 

Promissory note 27 

Pronominal adjectives 17 

Pronoun, Antecedent of 17 

" as equivalent of adver- 
bial phrase V) 

*' " modifier denoting 
possession of ori- 
gin lo 

" object of preposi- 
tion Vi 

" predicate com pi e- 

ment 15 

1 )efinition of 14 

" 17 

I'unctions of 15 

" 17 

Parsing of 17 

J'ronouns. Absolute possessive. . 17 

Classes of 17 

Compound personal.. 17 

Demonstrative 17 



/'iij/-'.: 
19 



Sec. 

Pronouns, Indefinite 17 

Interrogative 17 

Personal 17 

17 

" Relative 15 

" •' compound .. 17 

" double 17 

Table of 17 

Proper adjective 17 

" names, Capitalization of 20 

" " Gender of 10 

•' noun, Definition of 10 

" nouns used as common 

nouns 10 

Prosod}' 14 

Protecting a draft 27 

Protest, Definition of 27 

Punctuation, Avoidance of un- 
necessary 20 

Etymological 20 

" for emphasis and 

reference 20 

" Grammar in 20 

" Grammatical 20 

History of .20 

Logical 20 

" marks or points ... 20 
" " ]\Iiscellane- 

ous 20 

" " Origin of 20 

" of sentences 14 

" "thoughts and 

emotions in 

sentences 14 

Rhetorical 20 

Rules for 20 

Taste and judg- 
ment in 20 

Technical marks 

used in 20 

Purchase book, L^se of 31 

Q. Sec. 

Qualitative adjectives 17 

Quantitative adjectives 17 

Quotation, Definition of 27 

" marks. Use of 20 

Quotations, Punctuation of 20 

" direct CO 
quoted. Punctuation 

of 20 

" within questions. 

Punctuation of 20 

Quoted consecutive paragraphs, 

Punctuation of 20 

" quotations, Punctuation 

of 20 

titles. Capitalization of . . 20 



30 
28 
20 
22 
12 
27 
27 
34 

3 
49 
11 

4 



Fczs-c- 



INDEX. 



XV 



R. Sec. Page. 

Real estate 27 15 

Receipt from express company, 

Form of 31 9 

Receipts, Use of 27 23 

Receiver 27 15 

Redundant verbs 19 5 

Reference marks 20 45 

Reflections of the verb 18 11 

Reflexive verbs 18 7 

Regular verb 19 4 

Relative clauses, Punc t u a t i o n 

of 20 15 

pronoun, Function of. . . 17 22 

" " Simple 17 23 

" pronouns 15 12 

17 22 

" " Double and 

compound... 17 27 
" "■ in restrictive 
and coordi- 
nate clauses 17 24 
" " Svibstitu.tesfor 17 27 

Remittance 27 15 

Renewal of note 27 15 

Rent, Definition of . . . .- 27 15 

Resources 27 49 

Responsives 19 23 

Restrictive clauses 17 25 

Rhetorical elements, Punctua- 
tion of 20 10 

" pause, Indication of, 

by dash 20 32 

" punctuation 20 2 

" repetition 20 33 

Right curve 12 11 

" 13 12 

Roman numerals. Capitalization 

of.... 20 49 

Root infinitive 19 4 

Ruling practice 27 29 

S. Sec. Page. 
Sacred writings. Capitalization 

of 20 50 

Sales book, Use of 29 1 

Savings bank 27 15 

Schedule, Definition 27 15 

Secondary clauses 15 11 

Semicolon, Rules for 20 22 

Sentence, Complex. . .' 15 IG 

" Compound 15 17 

" Declarative 14 10 

Definition of 14 9 

" Exclamatory 14 10 

" Imperative 14 10 

" Interrogative 11 10 

'■'• Simple 15 13 

Sentences, Classification of 1 J 8 



Sec. 
Sentences, complex and com- 
pound. Analysis of.. 15 

" Forms of 15 

" of mixed form 14 

" Punctuation and cap- 
italization of 14 

" simple. Analysis of . . 15 

" Uses or functions of.. 14 

Sentential analj'sis 15 

" elements 14 

20 

" " Functions of 15 

" structure, Simplest . . 15 

Series, Exclamatory 19 

Sex and gender. Distinction be- 
tween 16 

" how denoted by words 16 

" Shall " and "will," Use of 19 

Shipments, Explanation of 32 

Shipping or forwarding ord^r. . . 31 

" order, Form of 31 

" receipt. Form of 31 

Side heads, Punctuation of 20 

" position 13 

Sight draft 27 

" 29 

Signature slip 27 

Signatures 12 

Simple adjective 17 

" adverbs 19 

" relative pronouns 17 

" sentence 15 

" Analysis of 15 

" " Compound 

member of 15 

Single-entry bookkeeping 27 

Singular number 16 

Six-column journal 32 

Slant 12 

" 13 

Small letters 13 

Specimen 12 

Speech, Parts of 14 

Statement, Definition of 27 

" of account 28 

" " business,Objectof 27 

Stockholder 27 

Stocks 27 

Storage, Definition of 27 

Straight Ime 12 

" 13 

.Strong verbs 10 

Subdivided clauses, Punctuation 

of 20 

" members of sen- 

tence, Punc t u a - 

tion of 20 

Subject, Definition of 11 



Page. 

23 
13 
11 

12 
20 

9 
20 
14 

6 

1 
13 



xn 



INDEX. 



Sfc. Page. 

Subject noun. Person i'f 16 12 

Subjunctive mode 18 14 

Subordinate clauses 15 11 

Subordinating: conjunctjons 15 Yt 

19 :« 

connectives 15 11 

Superlative degree of compari- 
son ir \'l 

Suspense account 27 1(3 

32 5 

Svntax . . 14 5 



Sec. Page. 

Type, Old system of 20 40 

"Point" system of 20 41 



T. Sec. 
Tabular matter. Punctuation of 20 
Technical marks in punctua- 
tion 20 

Tense, Definition of IH 

" forms. Interrogative IS 

Function of. 18 

phrases. Effect of certain 

elements in 10 

Tenses, Number and names of. . 18 

Primary 18 

" Relation of, with respect 

to time 18 

Terms, Definition of 27 

Tilde 20 

Time, Divisions of 18 

" draft 27 

" 29 

Title pages. Punctuation of 20 

Titles, Capitalization of 20 

" run in. Punctuation of. . . 20 

Trade discount 27 

Transactions for dry-goods busi- 
ness.. 30 

" general-mer- 
c h a n d i s e 

business 31 

grocery busi- 
ness 28 

" in furniture busi- 
ness 29 

wholesale flour 

business 27 

Transitive verbs 18 

'* active and pas- 
sive 18 

Transposed expressions, Punctu- 
ation of 20 

Trial balance. Explanation of... 27 
" " in dry-goods busi- 
ness 30 

Type, Old style and *' point " 

sizes ..f tio 



Pagt 



26 



\. Sec. 

Value received, Meaning of term 27 

Verb, Definition of 14 

Function of 18 

Inflection of 18 

Inflectional base of 19 

" phrases 18 

Action as denoted 

by 

'' Analysis of. . . . 



" Potential.. .. 

Principal parts of 

Regular 

Verbal adjective 

noun 

nouns - 

Verbals ... 

Verbs. Active 

Conjugation of 

Defective 

" irregular. List of 

" Neuter 

Old or strong, and new 

or weak 19 

" Parsing of 19 

Person and number of. .. 19 

Redundant 19 

Reflexive 18 

Regular and irregular. . . 10 
Transitive and intran- 
sitive 18 

Vertical penmanship 13 

W. Sec. 

Weak verbs 19 

Whole-arm movement 12 

Wholesale, Definition of 27 

"Will " and '• shall," Use of 19 

Word classes. Formation of 14 

Words, Arrangement of 14 

Classes of 14 

implied or understood... 14 

Written parsing 10 



Yes" 
of.... 



and 



Y . Sec. 
Punctuation 
20 



Page. 

16 

23 

1 

11 

3 

25 

26 
30 
15 

28 
4 
4 



6 

1 

Pu'ge. 

6 

8 
16 
13 
19 

8 
19 

9 

Page. 



26 



Z. Si-c. Page. 

Zoological names. Capitalization 
of '20 -.1 



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